Χρονικό 20. ΟΙ ΑΙΝΙΓΜΑΤΙΚΟΙ ΛΑΟΙ ΤΗΣ ΘΑΛΑΣΣΑΣ

Χρονικό 20. ΟΙ ΑΙΝΙΓΜΑΤΙΚΟΙ ΛΑΟΙ ΤΗΣ ΘΑΛΑΣΣΑΣ

/ENGLISH/ Chronicle 20. THE ENIGMATIC SEA PEOPLES

● Κατάρρευση Εποχής Μπρούντζου Λόγω Λιμού ● Τρωικός και Λαοί
τής Θάλασσας ● Στήλη Μερνεφθά και Έξοδος ● Χετταίοι και Λούβιοι

του Μιχάλη Λουκοβίκα

Η “Απέραντη Πράσινη” Μεσόγειος, η “Θάλασσα των Ελλήνων”

ΠΡΟΤΟΥ ΝΑ ΠΛΕΥΣΟΥΜΕ προς την Ἑσπερία, λέω να ξανοιχτούμε στο “Απέραντο Πράσινο” της “Θαλάσσης τῶν Ἑλλήνων” (όπως “έβλεπαν” οι Αιγύπτιοι τη Μεσόγειο), εἰς ἀναζήτησιν των Λαών τής Θάλασσας, συναπαντώντας καθ’ ὁδόν διάφορες περιπλανώμενες ομάδες μεταναστών ή προσφύγων. Ταξιδεύοντας στον χώρο και τον χρόνο, στην ιστορία, τον θρύλο ή τον μύθο, πρέπει να πάμε πίσω στο εκρηκτικό φινάλε τού 17ου ΠΚΧ αιώνα, στο “big bang” τής μινωικής ηφαιστειακής έκρηξης στην Θήρα, αφού σχεδόν συμπίπτει με τις πρώτες εμφανίσεις των Λαών τής Θάλασσας στην Αίγυπτο. Αν πάρουμε υπόψη μας πως εκείνην την περίοδο, μαζί με τον μινωικό στόλο, είχε ναυαγήσει και η επιχείρηση αστυνόμευσης των θαλασσών, μπορούμε να υποθέσουμε πως τότε οι άνθρωποι αυτοί θα ήταν πειρατές, ενώ παράλληλα, συνειδητοποιούμε πόσο μεγάλη αλληλεξάρτηση είχαν οι μεγάλες δυνάμεις και στον αρχαίο κόσμο.

Αρχαίο πλοίο, παράσταση σε αιγυπτιακό πάπυρο

Αργότερα, οι Αιγύπτιοι άρχισαν πια να προσδιορίζουν με τον τρόπο τους την ταυτότητα των διαφόρων ομάδων των Λαών τής Θάλασσας, και μια από τις πρώτες που κατέγραψαν ήταν οι Sherden (ή και Shardana). Επρόκειτο για μια μεγάλη ομάδα πειρατών, που δημιούργησε σοβαρά προβλήματα στο εμπόριο, στο τέλος τού 13ου αιώνα, συμβάλλοντας σε μεγάλο βαθμό στην κατάρρευση του μυκηναϊκού κόσμου. Το γεγονός ότι δεν αναφέρονται είτε σε παραδόσεις, ή και σε γραπτά, Ελλήνων ή Χετταίων, υποδηλώνει ότι δεν προέρχονταν από τις επικράτειές τους. Υπάρχουν μελετητές που συνδέουν τους Shardana με τη Σαρδηνία, επειδή μοιάζουν οι λέξεις. Με βάση το ίδιο σκεπτικό, η αρχαιολόγος Margaret Guido πρότεινε την άποψη πως η ἐν λόγῳ φυλή μάλλον καταγόταν από την πεδιάδα των Σάρδεων, στη Λυδία,, και μετανάστευσε, όπως φαίνεται, αργότερα στη Σαρδηνία. Πιθανολογείται ότι πολλοί άνθρωποι, όχι μόνον οι Τρῶες, οι μελλοντικοί Ρωμαίοι, εγκατέλειψαν τη Μικρά Ασία και το Αἰγαῖο, για να εγκατασταθούν τελικά στην ιταλική χερσόνησο και τα νησιά της, λόγω της κατάρρευσης της εποχής τού μπρούντζου μάλλον, παρά προτού από αυτήν. Έχουμε ενδείξεις που καθιστούν μάλλον αξιόπιστη την Αἰνειάδα τού Βιργιλίου – χωρίς ν’ αποκλείεται το ενδεχόμενο και προγενέστερων μεταναστεύσεων. Πρόσφατες γενετικές μελέτες, όντως, δείχνουν πως οι πληθυσμοί όχι μόνον των ανθρώπων, αλλά και των βοοειδών, σε διάφορες περιφέρειες της Ιταλίας, ιδιαίτερα στην Τοσκάνη, συγγενεύουν πρωτίστως με την Ανατολία, κυρίως τα βορειοδυτικά της, παρά με οποιαδήποτε άλλη περιοχή.

Ένα περίφημο απόσπασμα του Ἡροδότου, που επικαλούνται συχνά-πυκνά οι μελετητές, περιγράφει την αποδημία των Λυδών, και την περιπλάνησή τους στη Μεσόγειο, λόγω λιμού:

Ετρούσκοι ἐν χορῷ, επιτύμβια τοιχογραφία

“Ο βασιλιάς τους χώρισε τον λαό στα δυο, έτσι ώστε η μια ομάδα να παραμείνει, και η άλλη να εγκαταλείψει την χώρα. Επικεφαλής αυτών που έφευγαν θα ήταν ο γιος του, Τυρρηνός. Κατηφόρισαν προς την Σμύρνη κι έφτιαξαν καράβια. Πέρασαν από πολλές χώρες, ώσπου έφτασαν στους Όμβρους, όπου ίδρυσαν πόλεις και ονομάστηκαν Τυρρηνοί.”

Να μην ξεχνάμε πως η Μικρασία αντιμετώπιζε το ίδιο οξύτατο πρόβλημα της πείνας και κατά την περίοδο της κατάρρευσης, και ὡς ἐκ τούτου, οι Λαοί τής Θάλασσας, ένας συνασπισμός τότε θαλασσοπόρων μεταναστών-προσφύγων, είχαν βαθμιαία σφυρηλατήσει άρρηκτους δεσμούς, ώστε ν’ ανακουφιστούν από τις τεράστιες ελλείψεις. Η ξηρασία θα μπορούσε κάλλιστα να υποθάλψει κοινωνικοοικονομικές εντάσεις και πολέμους. Ως προς την ιστορία που μας αφηγήθηκε ο Ηρόδοτος, και τη σύνδεσή της με τους Λαούς τής Θάλασσας, υποστηρίζεται από αρκετούς μελετητές ότι εκείνοι που οι Αιγύπτιοι ονόμαζαν Teresh, δεν ήταν άλλοι από τους Τυρρηνούς (ή Τυρσηνούς), οι οποίοι συχνά ταυτίζονται με τους Tusci (ἐξ οὗ Τοσκάνη), δηλαδή το λατινικό εξώνυμο των Ετρούσκων (ή Rasna, όπως αυτοπροσδιορίζονταν). Εκτός τής ετρουσκικής, η τυρρηνική γλωσσική οικογένεια περιλαμβάνει και τη λημνιακή γλώσσα, που μιλιόταν, κατά τα φαινόμενα, στη Λήμνο μέχρι τον 6ο αιώνα ΠΚΧ. Μια άλλη γλώσσα τού Αἰγαίου, συγγενής ίσως της ετρουσκικής, ήταν η μινωική κρητική. Στον χάρτη των πιθανών τόπων καταγωγής των Τυρρηνών, μπαίνει από τον Θουκυδίδη ένα ακόμη αιγαιοπελαγίτικο νησί, δίπλα στη Μικρασία, η Λέσβος. Ως αναγνώστες τού Βιργιλίου, οι Ρωμαίοι ταύτιζαν τους Teresh με τους Τρώες. Υπάρχουν ενδείξεις που ενισχύουν την άποψη αυτή. Και αρκετοί συγγραφείς, ανάμεσά τους και ο Andrea Salimbeti, στο κείμενό του, Η ελληνική εποχή τού μπρούντζου: Λαοί τής Θάλασσας, υποστηρίζουν πως η συσχέτιση των Τρώων με τους Teresh (ή αλλιώς Tursha), θα πρέπει να είναι το πρώτο προς εξέταση ενδεχόμενο:

Ο δικέφαλος αετός, το βυζαντινό βασιλικό σύμβολο,
είχε χρησιμοποιηθεί από Μυκηναίους και Χετταίους,
λ.χ. αυτό το ανάγλυφο του 1400 ΠΚΧ στο Alaca Höyük

“Η Τροία εμφανίζεται σε χεττιτικό έγγραφο ως Taruisa. Μπορούμε λογικά να υποθέσουμε πως οι κάτοικοι της Taruisa ονομάζονταν με κάποια παρόμοια λέξη – χωρίς τα φωνήεντα, για να είναι συγκρίσιμη με την αιγυπτιακή γραφή”.

Η Τρωάδα βρισκόταν εκτός τής επικράτειας, μα μέσα στην σφαίρα επιρροής των Χετταίων. Διαφορετικό ενδεχόμενο προκύπτει από κάποιο άλλο χεττιτικό έγγραφο με κατάλογο πόλεων, μεταξύ των οποίων και η Tarsa, προφανώς η Ταρσός. Τα τοπωνύμια, και οι αντίστοιχες ιθαγένειές τους, θα καταγράφονταν στα αιγυπτιακά ιερογλυφικά, και σε οποιαδήποτε σημιτική, ή άλλη σφηνοειδή γραφή, χωρίς φωνήεντα, ως “Τρσ”, “Τρς”.⁽¹⁾

• ⁽¹⁾ Εξαιρετικό παράδειγμα για το πόσο σημαντική υπήρξε η ελληνική καινοτομία, με την χρήση συμβόλων για τα φωνήεντα. Αν οι ανατολικοί λαοί κατέγραφαν και τα φωνήεντα, τότε ίσως το αίνιγμα των Λαών τής Θάλασσας να είχε προ πολλού λυθεί!

“Οι Λαοί τής Θάλασσας μπορεί κάλλιστα να ήταν η Τροία με τη
συνομοσπονδία των συμμάχων της, κι η λογοτεχνική παράδοση
του Τρωικού μπορεί κάλλιστα ν’ αντανακλά την προσπάθεια των
Ελλήνων ν’ αποκρούσουν τις επιδρομές”. (Eberhard Zangger)

Το αμάλγαμα της Μικρασίας: οι περιοχές και οι λαοί τους

Με τη Μικρασία μάλλον συνδέονται, σύμφωνα με ποικίλες εκδοχές, και άλλοι Λαοί τής Θάλασσας, όπως οι Lukka (Λύκιοι). Το πιο εντυπωσιακό είναι ότι, στη συντριπτική τους πλειονότητα, φαίνεται πως κατάγονταν από την Τρωάδα. Γι’ αυτό ο Ελβετός γεωαρχαιολόγος,⁽²⁾ Eberhard Zangger, είναι της άποψης πως “οι Λαοί τής Θάλασσας μπορεί κάλλιστα να ήταν η Τροία με τη συνομοσπονδία των συμμάχων της, και η λογοτεχνική παράδοση του Τρωικού πολέμου μπορεί κάλλιστα ν’ αντανακλά την προσπάθεια των Ελλήνων ν’ αποκρούσουν αυτές τις επιδρομές.”⁽³⁾ Αυτό φαίνεται ν’ αντανακλά η Ὁμήρου Ἰλιάς.

• ⁽²⁾ Με την χρήση τεχνικών και του αντικειμένου τής γεωγραφίας, της γεωλογίας, ή και άλλων γεωεπιστημών, η γεωαρχαιολογία εξετάζει θέματα που εμπλουτίζουν την θεωρία και πράξη τής αρχαιολογίας. Οι γεωαρχαιολόγοι μελετούν τις φυσικές διεργασίες που επηρεάζουν τους αρχαιολογικούς χώρους, όπως η γεωμορφολογία, καθώς επίσης το έδαφος και τα ιζήματα, υποβοηθώντας τις αρχαιολογικές έρευνες.

• ⁽³⁾ Κατά το σενάριο αυτό, ο Τρωικός ήταν πόλεμος “δίκαιος”, αμυντικός, από την πλευρά των Ελλήνων, και δεν είχε ως στόχο την κατάκτηση και καταστροφή τής πόλης, που είχε υπό τον έλεγχό της το πέρασμα προς τον Εύξεινο Πόντο.

Η “Ανατολική υπόθεση” του Eberhard Zangger

Eberhard Zangger

● Στην “Ανατολική υπόθεσή” του (πως η Μικρασία και δη η Τροία δίνει το κλειδί για να κατανοήσουμε την εποχή), ο Eberhard Zangger προκάλεσε μεγάλη αίσθηση, αλλά και αντιδράσεις, επειδή ταύτισε την Τροία με την Ατλαντίδα. Η άποψή του είναι πως ο Πλάτωνας χρησιμοποίησε μιαν αιγυπτιακή εκδοχή τής ιστορίας τής Τροίας, όταν έκανε την περίφημη αναφορά του στην Ατλαντίδα. Για να στηρίξει το επιχείρημά του αυτό, συνέκρινε τον μυκηναϊκό πολιτισμό με την αφήγηση του Πλάτωνα σχετικά με την αναμέτρηση των πολιτισμών Ἑλλάδος και Ἀτλαντίδος, και παραλλήλισε τις αναμνήσεις τού Τρωικού πολέμου κι εκείνου που διεξήχθη, υποτίθεται, ανάμεσα στους Έλληνες και τους Άτλαντες (μάλλον παραλλαγή τής Τιτανομαχίας). Κατά την ερμηνεία του, ο θρύλος τού Τρωικού πολέμου είναι η ανάμνηση του κοσμοϊστορικού χάους, που οδήγησε στην κατάρρευση της εποχής τού μπρούντζου. Κατέληξε, μάλιστα, στο συμπέρασμα πως η Τροία θα πρέπει να ήταν πολύ μεγαλύτερη από ό,τι υποθέτουν οι περισσότεροι μελετητές, με τεχνητά λιμάνια μες στη σύγχρονη προσχωσιγενή πεδιάδα τής Τροίας. Για να το αποδείξει, προετοίμασε μια γεωφυσική χαρτογράφηση της πεδιάδας από ελικοπτέρου, ώστε να εντοπίσει στρώματα ανθρώπινης εγκατάστασης και ίχνη τεχνητών λιμανιών, με τεχνικές μελέτης τού υπεδάφους. Όμως, η τουρκική κυβέρνηση, έχοντας δώσει την αποκλειστικότητα ανασκαφής στην Τροία στον Γερμανό αρχαιολόγο Manfred Korfmann, απέρριψε το αίτημα του Zangger. Απογοητευμένος αυτός, περιορίστηκε σε μια διάλεξή του στην Ακαδημία Επιστημών τής Χαϊδελβέργης. Πιστεύω πως το εγχείρημά του υπονομεύτηκε όχι από τα αποκλειστικά δικαιώματα του Korfmann γι’ ανασκαφές στην Τροία [!] (το σχέδιο του Zangger ἐπὶ τῆς οὐσίας δεν προέβλεπε ανασκαφές), αλλά πιθανόν από την απροθυμία τής Τουρκίας να επιτρέψει τυχόν αποκάλυψη ευαίσθητων στρατιωτικών δεδομένων σε παραμεθόρια περιοχή.

Ίλιον/Τροία. Η ευρύτερη περιοχή και, κάτω δεξιά με κόκκινο, η σημερινή ακτογραμμή:
η πεδιάδα τής Τροίας που ενδιέφερε τον Zangger, στα στρατηγικής σημασίας στενά.

Η ιστορικότητα της Ιλιάδας

Σκηνές Τρωικού στην αγγειογραφία

Αν και αρκετοί ιστορικοί αμφισβητούν την ιστορικότητα της Ιλιάδας, φαίνεται πως ο Τρωικός πόλεμος υπήρξε ιστορικό γεγονός, και αποτελεί κλειδί για την κατανόηση των βαθύτερων αιτίων των κοσμοϊστορικών εξελίξεων εκείνη την εποχή. “Σίγουρα, η μετακίνηση των Λαών τής Θάλασσας περιλαμβάνεται στις μεγαλύτερες και σπουδαιότερες μεταναστεύσεις στην Ιστορία, αφού άλλαξε το πρόσωπο του αρχαίου κόσμου, περισσότερο από κάθε άλλο μεμονωμένο γεγονός, πριν από την εποχή τού Μεγάλου Ἀλεξάνδρου”, τονίζει ο Salimbeti. Αυτός ο μακρόχρονος, καταστρεπτικός πόλεμος, μαζί με τον εκτεταμένο λιμό σε όλη την χερσόνησο, δημιούργησαν τις εκρηκτικές συνθήκες που οδήγησαν στην κατάρρευση. Καθώς έτσι είχαν τα πράγματα, πολλοί Τρώες, σύμμαχοι, ή γείτονές τους, κατέληξαν πρόσφυγες, και πολλοί από αυτούς επιβίωσαν χάρη στην ευστροφία, μα και στα ξίφη τους. Αρχαιολογικά ευρήματα οδηγούν στο συμπέρασμα πως οι Λαοί τής Θάλασσας δεν ήταν πλέον ούτε πειρατές, ούτε κι επιδρομείς που λεηλατούσαν και λαφυραγωγούσαν ανυπεράσπιστες πόλεις, αλλ’ αντιθέτως, μια τεράστια ομάδα ανθρώπων, που έψαχναν ένα μέρος να εγκατασταθούν, μια νέα πατρίδα, ένα καλύτερο αύριο. Αυτό ήταν προφανές ήδη κατά την πρώτη τους εκστρατεία στην Αίγυπτο, με Λίβυους επικεφαλής, αφού συνοδεύονταν από τις οικογένειες και τα υπάρχοντά τους. Οι φυλές τής Λιβύης έπαιξαν επίσης σημαντικό ρόλο στις πρώτες εκστρατείες εναντίον τής Αιγύπτου. Αιώνες αργότερα, οι Ηρόδοτος και Ἑκαταῖος αναφέρθηκαν σε μια από τις ἐν λόγῳ φυλές. Ήταν οι Βέρβεροι Μάξυες (ή Μάζυες), οι Mazaces και Mazices των Ρωμαίων, ή οι Meshwesh των Αιγυπτίων, που διατείνονταν και αυτοί με τη σειρά τους πως στις φλέβες τους κυλούσε τάχα τρωικό αίμα…

Peleset αιχμάλωτος στην Αίγυπτο,
και το ἐν λόγῳ σύμβολο του Δίσκου
τής Φαιστού (κάτω δεξιά)

Πελασγοί και Φιλισταίοι (Peleset)

Ένας σημαντικός Λαός τής Θάλασσας υπήρξαν οι Peleset, που ταυτίζονται με τους Φιλισταίους και, με μιαν ευρεία έννοια, τους Παλαιστίνιους:

“Μια από τις θεωρίες τούς συνδέει με τους Πελασγούς, που ήταν σύμμαχοι της Τροίας, και μια ομάδα τους ζούσε στην Θρᾴκη”, πιθανολογεί ο Salimbeti. “Εκείνοι οι Πελασγοί μάλλον θα μετανάστευσαν στα νότια, υπερισχύοντας και καταφέροντας ανεπανόρθωτα πλήγματα κατά του αχαϊκού ελληνικού πολιτισμού. Λίαν συντόμως πολλοί από αυτούς βρέθηκαν ακόμη νοτιότερα, στην Κρήτη.”

Υπάρχουν βιβλικές αναφορές στους Φιλισταίους, ως προερχόμενους από ένα μέρος που προσδιορίζεται με το τοπωνύμιο Caphtor,⁽⁴⁾ το οποίον οὐκ ὀλίγοι μελετητές ταυτίζουν με την Κρήτη:

• ⁽⁴⁾ Wikipedia: “Ο Caphtor είναι τόπος που μνημονεύεται στη Βίβλο και την σχετική βιβλιογραφία. Οι κάτοικοί του καλούνται Caphtorites (ή Caphtorim) και αναφέρονται ως υποδιαίρεση των αρχαίων Αιγυπτίων. Παραδοσιακές εβραϊκές πηγές τοποθετούν τον Caphtor στην περιοχή τού Πηλουσίου [Δέλτα τού Νείλου]. Άλλες πηγές [;] τον συνδέουν με τόπους εκτός Αιγύπτου, όπως Κιλικία, Καππαδοκία, Κύπρο, ή Κρήτη”… Το πιο απίθανο σενάριο είναι “ατράνταχτη αλήθεια” για ορισμένους. Δείγμα τής αξιοπιστίας των μελετητών μας! (Βλέπε Χρονικό 27, υποσημείωση 10).

“Η θεωρία αυτή”, συμπληρώνει ο Salimbeti, “έχει κατά κάποιον τρόπον ενισχυθεί με την ανακάλυψη του Δίσκου τής Φαιστού στην Κρήτη. Ένα από τα σύμβολά του παρουσιάζει το κεφάλι ενός άνδρα στεφανωμένου με φτερά – μοιάζει, δηλαδή, πάρα πολύ με τις φτερωτές στην κορυφή περικεφαλαίες των Peleset, όπως τους απεικονίζουν” οι Αιγύπτιοι στον ναό τού Ραμσή Γ΄.⁽⁵⁾

Δέλτα τού Νείλου: το Πηλούσιον στ’ ανατολικά, η ελληνική αποικία Ναύκρατις δυτικά και, πιο πάνω, η θέση όπου χτίστηκε αργότερα η Αλεξάνδρεια. Φαίνεται και η “Διώρυγα των Φαραώ” που ένωνε Μεσόγειο κι Ερυθρά θάλασσα.

• ⁽⁵⁾ Ήταν, θα έλεγα, σχεδόν αναπόφευκτο: “Η ομοιότητα [της περικεφαλαίας των Peleset] με τα φτερωτά καλύμματα της κεφαλής των Μάγια και των Αζτέκων είναι πράγματι εκπληκτική, δεδομένης τής απόστασης που χώριζε τη μεσοαμερικανική κουλτούρα” από τη μεσογειακή… Καλπάζουσα φαντασία κάπου στη Διαδικτυακή Θάλασσα, ενώ πέρα στον μακρινό ορίζοντα αναδύεται σιγά-σιγά η γη τής Ατλαντίδας…

● Ποια ήταν, άραγε, η γλώσσα των Φιλισταίων; Η Wikipedia μας ενημερώνει για “πιθανές σχέσεις με ινδοευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες, ακόμη και τη μυκηναϊκή ελληνική, ενισχύοντας την θεωρία που έχει διατυπωθεί ανεξάρτητα [;!] πως οι Φιλισταίοι εμφανίστηκαν ως μετανάστες μεταξύ των ‘Λαών τής Θάλασσας’.” Και τι ξέρουμε, αλήθεια, για την γλώσσα (ή τις γλώσσες) των Πελασγών; “Αφού δεν υπάρχει καμιά βεβαιότητα για την ταυτότητα (ή τις ταυτότητες) των Πελασγών, έχουν προταθεί διάφορες θεωρίες. Καθώς η ελληνική έχει χαρακτηριστεί ως ινδοευρωπαϊκή γλώσσα, το μείζον προς διερεύνηση ζήτημα είναι αν [και] η πελασγική ήταν γλώσσα ινδοευρωπαϊκή”. Για όλα τα περαιτέρω, μας παραπέμπει στην αιγαιακή γλωσσική οικογένεια, που έχει προτείνει ο Giulio M. Facchetti, λόγω κάποιων υποτιθέμενων ομοιοτήτων ανάμεσα στην ετρουσκική και τη λημνιακή, καθώς και κάποιες άλλες γλώσσες τής περιοχής, όπως οι μινωική, ἐτεοκρητική, ἐτεοκυπριακή, καθώς και φιλισταϊκή. Οι γλώσσες αυτές ίσως να συναπάρτιζαν κάποιο προ-ινδοευρωπαϊκό φῦλον, που εκτεινόταν από την Χαναάν ως τις Άλπεις. Ωστόσο, η ἐν λόγῳ άποψη δεν είναι γενικά αποδεκτή. Υπάρχουν και άλλοι που επιχειρούν να συνδέσουν την ετεοκρητική και την ετεοκυπριακή με τις σημιτικές γλώσσες.

Πελασγικός κυκλαδικός πολιτισμός: στο σχέδιο αυτού του “τηγανιού” (2800 ΠΚΧ) κάποιοι ευφάνταστοι “βλέπουν” χάρτη τής Ατλαντίδας!

Φυσικά, όλα τα παραπάνω δεν είναι παρά υποθέσεις, όπως παραδέχεται και ο Facchetti. Αυτό που μετράει είναι η ιδέα την οποία είχαν οι ίδιοι οι Έλληνες για τους Πελασγούς, που επιβίωναν κατά την κλασική περίοδο σε διάφορα μέρη τής ηπειρωτικής Ελλάδας, της Κρήτης, ή και άλλων νησιών τού Αιγαίου. Πληθυσμοί, οι οποίοι τότε προσδιορίζονταν ως “πελασγικοί”, μιλούσαν γλώσσα, ή γλώσσες, που οι Έλληνες χαρακτήριζαν ως “βαρβαρικές” – ἤτοι τους ήταν ακατανόητες. Πολλά μέρη τής Ελλάδας, σύμφωνα με αρχαία παράδοση, ήταν κάποτε πελασγικά, πριν να εξελληνιστούν. Με όλα αυτά κατά νου, μπορούμε ν’ απολαύσουμε το θέαμα, βλέποντας τις θεωρητικολογίες των μελετητών να καταρρέουν παταγωδώς… (Περί Πελασγών βλέπε Χρονικό 15, υποσημείωση 7).

Ένας άλλος “Τρωαδίτης” Λαός τής Θάλασσας μπορεί να ήταν οι Weshesh. Οι ελάχιστες διαθέσιμες πληροφορίες οδήγησαν… ἐξ ἀνάγκης σε εικασίες για το ενδεχόμενο να σχετίζεται τ’ όνομά τους με το Ἴλιον, όπως ονόμαζαν επίσης οι Έλληνες την πόλη τής Τροίας (Wilusa, ή Wilusiya, οι Χετταίοι), από τον βασιλιά Ἴλο (ἐξ οὗ και Ἰλιάς). “Το W των Weshesh”, γράφει ο Salimbeti, “είναι σύγχρονη επινόηση για την ευκολία τής προφοράς: τα αιγυπτιακά αρχεία αναφέρονται στους Uashesh”. Μελετητές συσχετίζουν αυτόν τον λαό με την Ἄσσο, επίσης στην Τρωάδα, ή με την Ἰασό τής Καρίας, ή και με την Ἰσσό τής Κιλικίας. Άλλοι, πάλι, υποθέτουν πως συνδέθηκε με τον ισραηλιτικό συνασπισμό, ως η φυλή Ασήρ. Ένας ακόμη Λαός τής Θάλασσας σχετιζόμενος με τους Ιουδαίους ήταν οι Tjeker. Φτάνοντας στην Χαναάν, κατέλαβαν την πόλη-κράτος τής Dor, και τη μετέτρεψαν σε μεγάλη και καλά οχυρωμένη πρωτεύουσα του βασιλείου τους. Η Dor καταστράφηκε βίαια, στα μέσα τού 11ου αιώνα ΠΚΧ, από τους επεκτατικούς τότε Φοίνικες, που αρχικά ανακόπηκαν από τους Φιλισταίους, και κατόπιν από τους Εβραίους. Ο βασιλιάς Δαβίδ (αν ήταν κάτι παραπάνω από μυθολογική μορφή) υποτίθεται πως κατέκτησε την Dor, και οι Tjeker δεν ξανακούστηκαν πια.

Τεῦκρος τῆς Τρωάδος καὶ τῆς Σαλαμῖνος

Αχιλλέας και Αίας παίζουν ζάρια: αμφορέας τού
ζωγράφου-αγγειοπλάστη Εξηκία, 540-530 ΠΚΧ

Σύμφωνα με μια θεωρία, οι Tjeker είχαν γλωσσική συγγένεια με τους Tekrur, που δεν ήταν άλλοι από τους Τεύκρους, μια φυλή η οποία κατοικούσε στη βορειοδυτική Μικρασία, στα νότια της Τρωάδας, όπως αναφέρουν αρχαίες πηγές. Η παράδοση προσφέρει δυο ενδεχόμενα ως προς την καταγωγή τους: την Κρήτη και την Ἀττική. Θρύλοι συνδέουν αυτές τις περιοχές, φτάνοντας σε ακόμη πιο μακρινούς τόπους, ακολουθώντας κατά πόδας δύο επώνυμους μα και συνώνυμους ήρωες: ήταν ο Τρωαδίτης βασιλιάς Τεῦκρος, και ο Τεῦκρος ο “νόθος”, Ἕλλην ἐκ Σαλαμῖνος. Σύμφωνα με τον Βιργίλιο, ο πρώτος καταγόταν από την Κρήτη, αλλά εγκατέλειψε το νησί με το ένα τρίτο των κατοίκων στη διάρκεια μεγάλου λιμού (πόσες ανάλογες ιστορίες…), ώσπου εγκαταστάθηκε δίπλα σ’ ένα ποτάμι, που του έδωσε τ’ όνομα του πατέρα του, Σκάμανδρου. Αντίθετα, ο Διονύσιος ὁ Ἁλικαρνασσεὺς υποστηρίζει πως ο ἐν λόγῳ Τεύκρος είχε πάει στην Τρωάδα από την Αττική. Ο Σκάμανδρος (ή Ξάνθος) ήταν, λέει, ποτάμιος θεός, γιος τού Ὠκεανοῦ. Κατά τον Όμηρο, άρχισε να πολεμά στο πλευρό των Τρώων, όταν ο Ἀχιλλεὺς τον προσέβαλε. Ήταν προσωποποίηση του ποταμού που έρεε δίπλα από την Τροία. Οι Έλληνες στρατοπέδευσαν κοντά στις εκβολές του, και οι μάχες τους με τους Τρώες διεξάγονταν στην πεδιάδα του. Χάρη, λοιπόν, στον Τεύκρο, η γη ονομάστηκε αρχικά Τευκρία, αργότερα Δαρδανία, όταν έφτασε εκεί ο Δάρδανος (ἐξ οὗ και Δαρδανέλλια) και, στο τέλος, Τρωάδα (από τον βασιλιά Τρῶα). Παρ’ όλες τις τοπωνυμικές αλλαγές, οι Τρώες συνέχιζαν ν’ αυτοαποκαλούνται Τεύκροι. Έτσι, λ.χ. ο Αἰνείας προσδιορίζεται ως “ο μέγας καπετάνιος των Τεύκρων”.

Η κρίση τού Πάρι (1904), του Enrique Simonet: Η Αφροδίτη μπροστά θριαμβευτικά γυμνή
ως νικήτρια των αρχαίων καλλιστείων, ενώ Ήρα και Αθηνά μένουν ταπεινωμένες πίσω…

Ο νόθος Τεύκρος ήταν Τρωαδίτης κατά το ήμισυ, από τη μητέρα του, Ἡσιόνη, πριγκίπισσα του Ιλίου και παλλακίδα τού βασιλιά Τελαμῶνος, που είχε φτάσει από την Αἴγινα στη Σαλαμίνα, διωγμένος από τον πατέρα του, γιατί σκότωσε κατά λάθος τον αδερφό του. Ο Τεύκρος πήρε μέρος στον Τρωικό στο πλευρό των Ελλήνων, με συμμαχητή τον ετεροθαλή αδελφό του, Αἴαντα, ενώ “εχθροί” του ήταν οι εξάδελφοι Ἕκτωρ και Πάρις, αλλά και ο θείος Πρίαμος. Στο κάτω-κάτω, ο πόλεμος ήταν οικογενειακή υπόθεση – πόσο μάλλον για τον Τεύκρο. Όμως, όταν γύρισε στη Σαλαμίνα, ο πατέρας του τον κατηγόρησε, επειδή δεν φρόντισε να επαναπατριστεί η σορός τού Αίαντα. Τότε, και αυτός με τη σειρά του, αποκληρώθηκε, εξορίστηκε κι αναγκάστηκε να ψάξει για νέα πατρίδα. Τ’ αποχαιρετιστήρια λόγια του, που ο Ὁράτιος μετέτρεψε σε συγκινητική ᾠδή, είναι μια προτροπή προς τους συντρόφους του να μην βυθίζονται “καθόλου σε απελπισία… αύριο θα ξανοιχτούμε στην απέραντη θάλασσα”.⁽⁶⁾ Η ομιλία του αυτή, που συνδέθηκε αργότερα με τα ταξίδια των ανακαλύψεων, βρίσκεται επίσης στην Κόλαση του Δάντη, ή και τον Ulysses τού Tennyson. Ο Τεύκρος συμπαρατάχθηκε αργότερα με τον Φοίνικα βασιλιά Βῆλο, της Τύρου, κατά την εκστρατεία του εναντίον τής Κύπρου, και όταν το νησί κατακτήθηκε, ο Βήλος το παρέδωσε στον Τεύκρο ως ανταμοιβή. Και αυτός ίδρυσε εκεί την πόλη τής Σαλαμίνας, δίνοντάς της τ’ όνομα της γενέτειράς του.

• ⁽⁶⁾ “Όπου η τύχη θα μας φέρει, πιο καλότροπη απ’ τον πατέρα μου, | θα πάμε, ὦ, άνδρες και σύντροφοί μου. | Μην απελπίζεστε με τον Τεύκρο αρχηγό σας και προστάτη· | άδηλο είναι το μέλλον που επιφυλάσσει ο Απόλλων | στη Σαλαμίνα σ’ έναν νέο κόσμο. | Ὦ, άνδρες, που μαζί μου συχνά υπομείνατε | χειρότερες αναποδιές, ξορκίστε τώρα τις έγνοιες σας με το κρασί· | αύριο θα ξανοιχτούμε στην απέραντη θάλασσα.” (Ὁρατίου, ᾨδή).
  Στο λατινικό πρωτότυπο: “Quo nos cumque feret melior fortuna parente, | ibimus, o socii comitesque. | Nil desperandum Teucro duce et auspice Teucro; | certus enim promisit Apollo ambiguam tellure nova Salamina futuram. | O fortes peioraque passi | mecum saepe viri, nunc vino pellite curas; | cras ingens iterabimus aequor.”.

Η Λήδα και ο Κύκνος, από το Ιερό τής Αφροδίτης
στην Παλαιά Πάφο (3ος αιώνας ΚΧ)

Η “χαλκῆ νῆσος”, ζωτικής σημασίας κόμβος των εμπορικών δικτύων, γνώρισε δύο κύματα ελληνικού εποικισμού: Το αρχικό απαρτιζόταν από Μυκηναίους εμπόρους, γύρω στο 1400 ΠΚΧ. Προς τα τέλη αυτής της περιόδου, η Κύπρος παρήγαγε μεγάλες ποσότητες “μυκηναϊκών” αγγείων. Και το δεύτερο μεγάλο κύμα, που συνδέεται με την ιστορία τού Τεύκρου, σημειώθηκε μετά από την κατάρρευση της εποχής τού μπρούντζου, γύρω στο 1100 ΠΚΧ, δίνοντας από τότε έναν πρωτίστως ελληνικό χαρακτήρα στο νησί, λόγω της εισβολής των Ελλαδιτών προσφύγων. Εκτός από τη Σαλαμίνα, o Τεύκρος πιστεύεται πως ίδρυσε και άλλες πόλεις. Ένας τοπικός θρύλος στη Γαλικία, της βορειοδυτικής Ιβηρίας λ.χ. συνδέει την θεμελίωση της Pontevedra με τον “Teucro”. Ο θρύλος μάλλον βασίζεται στην υπόθεση πως Έλληνες έμποροι είχαν φτάσει εκεί κατά την αρχαιότητα. Αν και τα θρυλούμενα απορρέουν πάντα από κάποιαν αιτία, ιστορικοί και αρχαιολόγοι συναινούν πως ο αρχικός οικισμός σχηματίστηκε κατά τον 1ο αιώνα ΠΚΧ, όταν η αρχαία Γαλικία ενσωματώθηκε στην Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορία. Η Ποντεβέδρα (“παλαιά γέφυρα”, από μια ρωμαϊκή γέφυρα στον ποταμό Lérez), ονομάζεται μερικές φορές ποιητικά “πόλη τού Τεύκρου”, και οι κάτοικοί της “teucrinos” – όπως οι Τρώες!⁽⁷⁾ (Βλέπε Χρονικό 5, Οι Οδύσσειες του Τρωικού).

Λυχνάρι, Tróia, Πορτογαλία

• ⁽⁷⁾ Υπάρχει η εντύπωση πως η Tróia, απέναντι από το Setúbal τής Πορτογαλίας, πήρε τ’ όνομά της από την Τροία, όμως δεν ξέρουμε γιατί. Η χερσόνησος κατοικήθηκε στους προϊστορικούς χρόνους, όταν ήταν νησί και ονομαζόταν Acalá. Η πόλη, που έχτισαν εκεί οι Ρωμαίοι στον 1ο αιώνα ΚΧ, ονομάστηκε Cetóbriga, και αναδείχθηκε σ’ ένα σημαντικό αλιευτικό κέντρο. Όμως καταστράφηκε ολοσχερώς το 412 λόγω σεισμού με τσουνάμι. Αν το αρχικό όνομα ήταν Tróia, θα υποθέταμε πως οι Ρωμαίοι, ως καταγόμενοι από τους Τρώες, αποφάσισαν να χτίσουν μια Τροία δίπλα στην πόλη τού Ὀδυσσέα: το Olisipo, τη Λισαβόνα! Όπως παρατηρεί ο José Pedro Machado, στ’ Ονομαστικό ετυμολογικό λεξικό τής πορτογαλικής γλώσσας, το τοπωνύμιο αυτό δεν βρίσκεται μόνον στην περιοχή τού Setúbal. Υπάρχουν και άλλες Tróia στην Πορτογαλία, ή μια Troya στη Γαλικία. Οι “νονοί” τους, προφανώς, εμπνεύστηκαν από την Ιλιάδα. Βάσει ενός λήμματος της Μεγάλης πορτογαλικής και βραζιλιάνικης εγκυκλοπαίδειας, ο Machado εξέτασε το ενδεχόμενο το ἐν λόγῳ τοπωνύμιο να προέρχεται από την Cetóbriga: > Cetóbria > Cetróbia > Cetróia > Xetróia > Atróia – αν και… παρατραβάει η ιστορία για ένα όνομα! Ή, ενδεχομένως, το τοπωνύμιο να μη συνδέεται με την Τροία, αλλά με την Troyes, ή την Truyes, δύο γαλλικές πόλεις. Ή, τέλος, να προέκυψε από τη λατινική φράση “Trogia (villa)”, που παραπέμπει στο κέλτικο όνομα Trogus, Τρόγος – το πιθανότερο μάλλον.

Ψηφιδωτό στην Conímbriga

Συμπτώσεις Θρᾳκῶν και Κελτῶν

● Μα και το τοπωνύμιο Cetóbriga είναι προφανώς κέλτικο. Επειδή όμως υπάρχουν αναφορές για την παρουσία στην Ιβηρία και Θρᾳκῶν, με την κατάληξη -βριγα στην γλώσσα τους, ας δούμε και το θέμα αυτό. Υπάρχουν στην χερσόνησο πάρα πολλά τοπωνύμια με την κατάληξη -briga. Ίσως η γνωστότερη πόλη αυτής της κατηγορίας να είναι η Conímbriga, ένας από τους μεγαλύτερους ρωμαϊκούς οικισμούς τής Πορτογαλίας. Κατά την προ-ρωμαϊκήν εποχή ζούσαν εκεί οι Κόνιοι (Κυνήτες), που κατόπιν εγκαταστάθηκαν στη νότια Πορτογαλία. Μετά από την καταστροφή τής πόλης από τους Σουηβούς στη δεκαετία 460 ΚΧ, αρκετοί κάτοικοι πήγαν να ζήσουν στο γειτονικό Αιμίνιον, που σταδιακά μετονομάστηκε σε Coimbra. Η λέξη Conímbriga, πάντως, δεν συνδέεται με τους Conii· σχηματίζεται από τον γηγενή όρο conim (βράχος) και την κέλτικη κατάληξη -briga (ακρόπολη). Σχετίζεται με τους Κέλτες Brigantes που ήλεγχαν στα προ-ρωμαϊκά χρόνια την Brigantia στη Β. Αγγλία. Στη Β. Ιβηρία υπήρχε το Brigantium (Coruña, Γαλικία) και το Brigaecium (Αστούριες). Κατά τον Πτολεμαῖο, οι Brigantes ζούσαν και στη ΝΑ Ιρλανδία. Ο Στράβων μιλά για τους Brigantii, ως υποομάδα των Κελτών Vindelici, στις Άλπεις. Υπήρχαν, όμως, και οι Βρίγαντες, ή Βρύγες, που ήταν πολυάριθμος θρακικός λαός, με κοιτίδα, μάλλον, την χώρα των Κικόνων (μεταξύ Έβρου και Νέστου), ή την περιοχή των Βρυγηΐδων λιμνών (Πρέσπες). Ήταν πρόγονοι των Φρυγών (το ‘Β’ έγινε ‘Φ’), που αρχικά κατοικούσαν στη Βαλκανική, κι έπειτα μετανάστευσαν στη Μικρασία. Η χώρα των Κικόνων, κατά τον Ηρόδοτο, λεγόταν αρχικά Βριαντική. Περί το 700 ΠΚΧ, οι Βρύγες εγκαταστάθηκαν στη Β. Ήπειρο, μετά απλώθηκαν στην Παιονία, την Ιλλυρία (όπως λέει ο Σκύμνος ὁ Χίος στην Περιήγησή του), την Αδριατική (όπου βρίσκονται οι Βρυγηΐδες νήσοι), και στη δυτική Ευρώπη, εκστρατεύοντας ως ακόλουθοι του Διονύσου. Χαρακτηριστικό των Βριγάντων, σύμφωνα με τον Ἡσύχιο, ήταν οι καταλήξεις -βρίγα, ή -βρία, στις πόλεις τους (βλέπε και Χρονικό 5, Οι Οδύσσειες του Τρωικού).

Δούρειος Ίππος: η παλαιότερη γνωστή απεικόνιση (πίθος Μυκόνου, ± 670 ΠΚΧ)

ΩΣ ΤΩΡΑ, ΜΕ ΜΟΝΗ ΕΞΑΙΡΕΣΗ ΤΟΝ ΤΕΥΚΡΟ, που επιτέθηκε στην Κύπρο παρέα με Φοίνικες, συμβολίζοντας όσους βρήκαν καταφύγιο εκεί, δεν έχουμε δει κανέναν άλλον Έλληνα να πολεμά στο πλευρό των Λαών τής Θάλασσας, ή συμμάχων τους, αλλά μάλλον εναντίον τους, στον Τρωικό πόλεμο. Μας το είπε ήδη ο Sanford Holst στο προηγούμενο Χρονικό:

“Οι Μυκηναίοι είχαν επιτεθεί κατά των Μικρασιατών από τη μεριά τής θάλασσας. Για την επίλυση του προβλήματος, πολεμιστές και πλοία τής συνομοσπονδίας των Λαών τής Θάλασσας ξεχύθηκαν από την Ανατολία και τον Εύξεινο Πόντο στο Αιγαίο, όπου λεηλάτησαν τους Μυκηναίους”……

Ας προσπαθήσουμε να το επαληθεύσουμε αυτό στην Wikipedia:

“Οι εισβολείς, δηλαδή οι διάδοχες κουλτούρες σε αυτούς τους τόπους [ἤτοι τους μυκηναϊκούς], προφανώς δεν έκαναν καμιά προσπάθεια να διατηρήσουν τον πλούτο των πόλεων, αλλ’ αντίθετα, έχτισαν νέους οικισμούς πάνω στα ερείπια, με απλούστερη υλικά κουλτούρα και σε όχι τόσο περίπλοκο οικονομικό επίπεδο. Για παράδειγμα, κανείς δεν ιδιοποιήθηκε το ανάκτορο και τις πλούσιες αποθήκες τής Πύλου, αλλά τα πάντα κατακάηκαν, και οι διάδοχοι (όποιοι και αν ήταν αυτοί) προχωρούσαν μες στα ερείπια με φτωχικά αγγεία και στοιχειώδη υλικά αγαθά. Αυτό μαρτυρά μια πολιτισμική ασυνέχεια.”

Αυτό ίσως μαρτυρά και μια λογική ασυνέχεια! Το ερώτημα ως προς το ποιοι μπορεί να ήταν αυτοί οι εισβολείς, ο/η συγγραφέας το αφήνει αναπάντητο. Κι όμως τους ταυτίζει με τις “διάδοχες κουλτούρες”, που τα μέλη τους ήταν τόσο ανόητα, ώστε “κατέκαψαν το ανάκτορο και τις πλούσιες αποθήκες”, αντί να τα ιδιοποιηθούν. Απλούστατα, οι ἐν λόγῳ εισβολείς δεν είχαν κανέναν σκοπό να εγκατασταθούν εκεί. Είχαν πάει μόνο για να καταστρέψουν: δεν ήταν οι “διάδοχες κουλτούρες”!

Αιχμάλωτοι μαχητές των Λαών τής Θάλασσας στην Αίγυπτο

Στους κόλπους των Λαών τής Θάλασσας κυριαρχούσαν οι Μικρασιάτες, αλλά σίγουρα δεν ήταν μόνοι τους. Στα αιγυπτιακά αρχεία, αρκετά ονόματα φυλών είναι αμφίβολης, ή άγνωστης, προέλευσης· όπως οι Shekelesh, ίσως οι Siculi, που μετακινήθηκαν από την ηπειρωτική Ιταλία στη Σικελία.

“Υπήρξε μια γιγαντιαία σειρά μεταναστευτικών κυμάτων, που εκτεινόταν σε όλη τη διαδρομή από την κοιλάδα τού Δούναβη ως τις πεδιάδες τής Κίνας”, σχολιάζει ο Michael Grant· και ο Moses Finley γενικά συμφωνεί: “Έχουμε ενδείξεις για μια μεγάλης κλίμακας μετακίνηση ανθρώπων… Το αρχικό κέντρο αναταραχής ήταν στην Καρπαθοδουνάβια περιοχή τής Ευρώπης… πιέζοντας σε διαφορετικές εποχές προς διαφορετικές κατευθύνσεις.”

Αν πιστέψουμε, όμως, τον Michael Wood, ήταν… “ουσιαστικά” [;!] Έλληνες:

“Απαρτίζονταν, όντως, οι Λαοί τής Θάλασσας ἐν μέρει από Μυκηναίους Έλληνες – ξεριζωμένους μετανάστες, ομάδες πολεμιστών και condottieri ἐν κινήσει; Σίγουρα, υπάρχουν υπόνοιες, μάλλον εξαιτίας των ομοιοτήτων στον πολεμικό εξοπλισμό και τις περικεφαλαίες των Ελλήνων και των Λαών τής Θάλασσας”. Περιλαμβάνοντας, επιπλέον, τους Sherden και Shekelesh στους “κακούς”, μας υπενθυμίζει πως “εκείνη την εποχή είχαν γίνει μεταναστεύσεις ελληνόφωνων λαών” προς τη Σαρδηνία και τη Σικελία. Η Τροία, καταλήγει, “λεηλατήθηκε ουσιαστικά από Έλληνες Λαούς τής Θάλασσας”…⁽⁸⁾

• ⁽⁸⁾ Είναι μεγάλο κρίμα που… “ουσιαστικά”, δεν υπήρχαν και Βρετανοί “κοντοτιέροι εν κινήσει”. Αλλιώς, ο… “παίδαρος της σκεφτόμενης γυναίκας” (όπως έχουν περιγράψει χιουμοριστικά κάποιες βρετανικές εφημερίδες τον Wood, λόγω της γοητείας του, που τον έκανε ελκυστικό στο “ασθενές” φύλο) θα είχε βρει ελληνικές αποικίες ακόμη και στον Άρη!

Κυκλαδική κεφαλή: ζει “στα νησιά” με “αλλοιωμένα” χαρακτηριστικά. Άρα
είναι “ύποπτη”!

Ούτε και ο Michael Wood είναι μόνος του. Η ταύτιση των Denyen και Ekwesh, με τους Δαναούς και Αχαιούς, αντίστοιχα, είναι ένα “χρόνιο πρόβλημα” των μελετών τής εποχής τού μπρούντζου, καθώς μάλιστα οι “ύποπτοι” ζούσαν… “στα νησιά”!⁽⁹⁾ Ήταν, άραγε, οι Αιγύπτιοι γραφείς αδαείς και αφελείς, ώστε να χρησιμοποιούν δυο ονόματα για τον ίδιο λαό; Τί μελετητές τής εποχής τού μπρούντζου είναι εάν (προσποιούνται ότι) αγνοούν πως Αχαιοί και Δαναοί είναι όροι συνώνυμοι; Μα δεν μελέτησαν την Ιλιάδα; Ο Όμηρος αναφέρει τ’ όνομα Ἀχαιοὶ 598 φορές, Δαναοὶ 138 φορές, Ἀργεῖοι 182 φορές, και Ἕλληνες μόνο μια φορά. Ήταν οι πρόγονοι των Ελλήνων: σύμφωνα με μιαν εκδοχή τού μύθου, οι Ἕλλην, Γραικός, Μάγνης, και Μακεδών (Μακεδνός), ήταν γιοι τού Δευκαλίωνα και της Πύρρας, οι μόνοι επιζώντες τού κατακλυσμού. Παιδιά τού Έλληνα ήταν οι Δῶρος, Ξοῦθος, και Αἴολος· και παιδιά τού Ξούθου οι Ἴων και Ἀχαιός. Ο Δαναός από την Αίγυπτο, ο Πέλοψ από τη Μικρασία, και ο Κάδμος από την Φοινίκη, κέρδισαν επάξια μια θέση στην Ελλάδα, αφομοιώθηκαν κι εξελληνίστηκαν. Για τους Δαναούς, πιθανόν λόγω… “αιγυπτιακής” καταγωγής, υπάρχει κάποια ελαστικότητα: ή ταυτίζονται με τους κατοίκους των Αδάνων τής Κιλικίας, ή συνδέονται ίσως με τη γη των Danuna, κοντά στην Ουγκαρίτ τής Συρίας, ή λέγεται πως μπορεί να ενώθηκαν μ’ εβραίους, σχηματίζοντας μια από τις αρχικές δώδεκα φυλές τού Ισραήλ, την φυλή Δαν.

• ⁽⁹⁾ Παρ’ όλο που η σύνδεση ακόμη και του χεττιτικού τοπωνυμίου Ahhiyawa (ή Ahhiya), με την Ἀχαΐα, αμφισβητείται εντονότατα (Wikipedia: “η ακριβής σχέση τού όρου Ahhiyawa με τους Αχαιούς, πέρα από μιαν ομοιότητα στην προφορά, προκαλεί έντονες αντιπαραθέσεις μεταξύ των μελετητών”· βλέπε την κατάληξη αυτού τού Χρονικού), οι… “Wikipediστές” έχουν απόλυτη βεβαιότητα για την ταύτιση Αχαιών και Ekwesh. Έτσι, αν αναζητήσεις πληροφορίες για τους δεύτερους, ανακατευθύνεσαι στους πρώτους! Ως προς την επίμαχη φράση “στα νησιά”, που οι Αιγύπτιοι χρησιμοποιούν αναφερόμενοι σε Λαούς τής Θάλασσας, και την επικαλούνται οι μελετητές ως επιχείρημα, καταντά να σημαίνει:“Πας μη στεριανός ύποπτος”!

ΚΟΡΥΦΑΙΟ ΓΕΓΟΝΟΣ τής βασιλείας τού Μερνεφθά (1213–1203 ΠΚΧ) ήταν η μάχη ενάντια στα λεγόμενα “Εννέα Τόξα”, μια συνομοσπονδία υπό την ηγεσία τού βασιλιά τής Λιβύης. Ο φαραώ διακηρύσσει με καμάρι ότι συνέτριψε την εισβολή, σκοτώνοντας 6.000 πολεμιστές, κι αιχμαλωτίζοντας άλλους 9.000. Για να είναι σίγουρος ως προς τους αριθμούς, διέταξε, μεταξύ άλλων, να κοπούν τα πέη όλων των νεκρών δίχως περιτομή, και οι παλάμες όσων είχαν κάνει περιτομή.⁽¹⁰⁾ Αναφέρω – σκόπιμα – αυτήν την ανατριχιαστική λεπτομέρεια, επειδή, όπως αποδείχθηκε, οι Ekwesh (οι… “Αχαιοί”) ήταν μεταξύ των περιτετμημένων, γεγονός που θα υποχρέωνε οπωσδήποτε κάθε σοβαρό μελετητή τής εποχής τού μπρούντζου να εκδώσει… “απαλλακτικό βούλευμα” για τους Έλληνες Αχαιούς!⁽¹¹⁾

• ⁽¹⁰⁾ Φανταστείτε εκείνους τους καημένους φαντάρους να μετρούν αυτά τα πέη και τις παλάμες!

• ⁽¹¹⁾ … “γεγονός που αναγκάζει ορισμένους ν’ αμφιβάλλουν για το αν ήταν Έλληνες”, είναι αυτό που όντως διαβάζουμε στη Wikipedia! Ίσως να έκαναν περιτομή για… καμουφλάζ! Ή απλώς για να… μπερδέψουν τους μελετητές μας! Αυτό που δεν ξεχνούν ποτέ οι τελευταίοι, είναι ο αφορισμός τού Βιργιλίου: “Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes”· “Φοβοῦ τοὺς Δαναοὺς καὶ δῶρα φέροντας” – στην περίπτωσή μας: και… περιτομὴν φέροντας! Τουλάχιστον οι μελετητές μας μελέτησαν την Αἰνειάδα… Σημειωτέον πως όχι μόνον οι Ekwesh, αλλά και οι Shekelesh και Shardana ήταν περιτετμημένοι, όπως αποσαφηνίζουν οι Αιγύπτιοι (κρίμα, δεν ενημέρωσαν τον… Michael Wood)! Άρα, αυτοί οι δυο λαοί είχαν επίσης ανατολική καταγωγή, και μόνον αργότερα εγκαταστάθηκαν στη Σικελία και τη Σαρδηνία. Εκείνοι που δεν είχαν περιτομή ήταν οι Peleset… (“Αχά!”, σας ακούω να καγχάζετε, φίλτατοί μου μελετητές!)

Η Στήλη τού Μερνεφθά που σφετερίστηκαν οι σιωνιστές ως “Στήλη τού Ισραήλ”…

Στήλη τού Μερνεφθά και Έξοδος

● Οι νίκες τού φαραώ, σε βάρος των Λιβύων και των συμμάχων τους, Λαών τής Θάλασσας, δοξάζονται στην “Στήλη τού Μερνεφθά”, μια μαύρη πλάκα γρανίτη πάνω από τρία μέτρα ύψος, που ανακάλυψε ο Flinders Petrie στις Θήβες το 1896. Υπάρχει, όμως, ένα είδος υποσημείωσης στις τελευταίες δυο αράδες από τις 28, όπου γίνεται λόγος για μια ξεχωριστή εκστρατεία του στην Χαναάν. Εκεί ο φαραώ καυχιέται πως νίκησε και κατέστρεψε τέσσερις πόλεις, η τέταρτη από τις οποίες ήταν πιθανότατα μια πόλη, σε ομώνυμη κοιλάδα τής βόρειας Χαναάν: η Ιεζρήλ (Jezreel) – μια λέξη τόσο όμοια με το… Ισραήλ! Σίγουρα αυτό θα ήταν πολύ πιο βολικό κι επωφελές για όλους: την εβραϊκή διασπορά, τον ανερχόμενο σιωνισμό, που ιδρύθηκε επίσημα ως κίνημα την επόμενη χρονιά τής ανακάλυψης, πολλούς χριστιανούς, κυρίως τον κλήρο, μα και φυσικά, τον ίδιο τον Petrie! Εκείνη τη μέρα αναρωτήθηκε: “Δεν θα ευχαριστηθούν οι αιδεσιμότατοι;”· και μετά προφήτεψε: “Η στήλη αυτή θα γίνει περισσότερο γνωστή στον κόσμο από ό,τι άλλο έχω βρει.” Δεν ήταν βέβαια ανόητος: αν αυτό το σύμπλεγμα των ιερογλυφικών, στην γραμμή 27, μπορούσε να διαβαστεί αντί για “Ιεζρήλ”, ως… “Ισραήλ”, τότε θα επρόκειτο για την πρώτη καταγεγραμμένη μνεία τού ονόματος αυτού στα ιστορικά χρονικά, και την μοναδική στην αρχαία Αίγυπτο!

Παρά το γεγονός ότι τα σύμβολα σε πολλά σημεία είναι δυσανάγνωστα, λόγω της τραχιάς επιφάνειας και της κακής κοπής (στη μετάφραση του κειμένου από τον ίδιο τον Petrie υπάρχουν δεκάδες ερωτηματικά· μόνο δίπλα στην αμφιλεγόμενη λέξη δεν υπάρχει τίποτε…), οι περισσότεροι βιβλικοί αρχαιολόγοι αποδέχονται την ερμηνεία τού Petrie. Έτσι, το εύρημά του “βαπτίστηκε” ως… “Στήλη τού Ισραήλ”· βάσει μιας αμφισβητούμενης λέξης, στην προτελευταία γραμμή ενός κειμένου που ασχολείται με άλλο θέμα!⁽¹²⁾ Τι ντροπή για τον Μερνεφθά: ο υπερήφανος φαραώ να επαίρεται για θρίαμβο σε βάρος μιας χούφτας φτωχών χωρικών! Το πολύ-πολύ να υπήρχαν τότε 25 χωριά στα υψίπεδα της Χαναάν. Αρχαιολόγοι και ιστορικοί προσπαθούν να ιχνηλατήσουν την καταγωγή αυτών των χωρικών, αλλά στάθηκε αδύνατο να εντοπιστούν τυχόν ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά που θα μπορούσαν να προσδιοριστούν κατηγορηματικά ως ισραηλιτικά. Όπως λέει η αρχαιολόγος Paula McNutt: “Είναι πιθανόν… κατά την πρώιμη εποχή τού σιδήρου [1200–1000 ΠΚΧ] ν’ άρχισε ένας πληθυσμός να αυτοπροσδιορίζεται ως ‘ισραηλιτικός’.” Θα περνούσε αρκετός καιρός, ώσπου το βασίλειο του Ισραήλ ν’ αναδειχθεί ως σημαντική και αξιομνημόνευτη τοπική δύναμη κατά τον 9ο αιώνα ΠΚΧ, πριν να καταρρεύσει από τους Ασσύριους το 722. Επομένως, δεν υπήρχε κανένα “Ισραήλ” να μνημονεύσει ο Μερνεφθά – εκτός κι αν ήταν… προφήτης, σαν τον Petrie!

• ⁽¹²⁾ Μα φταίει και ο Μερνεφθά που ιδιοποιήθηκε την στήλη από τον προκάτοχό του, Αμένωφι Γ’: τη γύρισε ανάποδα και στην τραχιά επιφάνειά της έγραψε ό,τι έγραψε. Πού νά ’ξερε…

Η αναχώρηση των Ισραηλιτών, του David Roberts (1829)

● Κατά κάποιον τρόπο, η “κομπίνα” αυτή ήταν η “επανόρθωση” του ιστορικού “λάθους” των Αιγυπτίων να μην μνημονεύσουν καθόλου ούτε τις “Δέκα πληγές”, ούτε καν την περιβόητη “Ἔξοδο”… Οι αρχαιολόγοι είναι εξίσου “υπεύθυνοι”, αφού δεν μπόρεσαν να βρουν κάποια στοιχεία που να επιβεβαιώνουν την “ιστορία” των Ιουδαίων στην Αίγυπτο, ή και το Σινά. Οι μελετητές τής Βίβλου γενικά συμφωνούν πως δεν υπήρξε ποτέ “έξοδος” των διαστάσεων που περιγράφονται εκεί. Κατά το βιβλίο τής Εξόδου, αναμφισβήτητα το σπουδαιότερο της Βίβλου, ο πληθυσμός που έφυγε από την χώρα θα πρέπει να αριθμούσε περίπου 2 εκατομμύρια άτομα, ένα νούμερο, το οποίο οφείλουμε να το συγκρίνουμε με το σύνολο του πληθυσμού τής Αιγύπτου, που θα κυμαινόταν ανάμεσα στα 3 με 3,5 εκατομμύρια το 1250 ΠΚΧ! Προχωρώντας ανά δέκα, και χωρίς να παίρνουμε υπόψη τα ζώα, θα πρέπει να είχαν σχηματίσει πορεία μήκους 240 χιλιομέτρων! Όμως, δεν υπάρχουν καθόλου ενδείξεις πως η Αίγυπτος υπέστη ποτέ τέτοια δημογραφική, αλλά και οικονομική, καταστροφή, ή πως τάχα η έρημος του Σινά φιλοξένησε ποτέ (ή θα μπορούσε να φιλοξενήσει) αυτά τα εκατομμύρια των ανθρώπων, μαζί με τα κοπάδια τους… Η ημερομηνία περί το 1450 ΠΚΧ, που προτάθηκε αρχικά για την Έξοδο, είναι επίσης προβληματική: ανασκαφές που έγιναν στη δεκαετία τού 1930, δεν κατάφεραν να εντοπίσουν ίχνη ταυτόχρονης καταστροφής των πόλεων της Χαναάν γύρω στο 1400 ΠΚΧ – στην πραγματικότητα, πολλές από αυτές, όπως η Ιεριχώ, η πρώτη που κατά τη Βίβλο έπεσε στους Ισραηλίτες, ήταν ακατοίκητες εκείνη την εποχή. Ένας αιώνας ερευνών δεν έχει οδηγήσει σε κανένα αποδεικτικό στοιχείο, το οποίο να συνδέεται με την αιχμαλωσία, την φυγή, και τις περιπλανήσεις μέσα στην έρημο, και οι περισσότεροι αρχαιολόγοι έχουν πάψει να ψάχνουν πλέον για τον Μωυσή, ή και την Έξοδο, θεωρώντας πως πρόκειται για “άκαρπη αναζήτηση”. Όπως λέει επίσης ο αρχαιολόγος William Dever, “δεν υπάρχουν περιθώρια Εξόδου από την Αίγυπτο, ή κάποιου σαραντάχρονου προσκυνήματος μέσα στην έρημο του Σινά.”

Η κατά Petrie “εκλεκτή, καυκάσια, δυναστική φυλή”
έτοιμη ν’ αποβιβαστεί στην Αίγυπτο…!

● Ο Petrie που, ενδεχομένως, θα μπορούσε να “επιληφθεί του θέματος”, έχει προ πολλού πεθάνει, και θάφτηκε στον λόφο Σιών, στην Παλαιστίνη. Άλλωστε, είναι άκρως αμφιλεγόμενη προσωπικότητα, ως φανατικός υπέρμαχος τής “ευγονικής”, μα και της “ανωτερότητας” των βορείων λαών, απέναντι στους νότιους και τους λατινογενείς, καθώς και για τη σύνδεσή του με διάφορες φασιστικές ομάδες, ή την αντιδημοκρατική ιδεολογία στην Αγγλία. Οι απόψεις του σε αρχαιολογικά θέματα ήταν εξίσου ρατσιστικές. Ισχυριζόταν πως ο αιγυπτιακός πολιτισμός προήλθε από “εκλεκτή, καυκάσια [λευκή], δυναστική φυλή” εισβολέων, που είχε κατακτήσει την Αίγυπτο κατά την προδυναστική εποχή, στα τέλη τής προϊστορίας, εισάγοντας τον φαραωνικό δυναστικό πολιτισμό στην “κατώτερη” φυλή των “μιγάδων”, που ζούσαν τότε στην χώρα. Οι απόψεις του ήταν η αιτία να ξεσπάσουν οι αντιδικίες του με τον E. A. Wallis Budge. Ο αιγυπτιολόγος τού Βρετανικού Μουσείου τόνιζε πως οι αρχαίοι Αιγύπτιοι ήταν ένας αφρικανικός λαός, με ρίζες στην ανατολική Αφρική, και θρησκεία που ήταν ουσιαστικά ταυτόσημη μ’ εκείνες των λαών τής βορειοανατολικής και κεντρικής Αφρικής. Ωστόσο, όλοι οι συνάδελφοί του, πλην ελαχίστων, ασπάζονταν τις απόψεις τού Petrie – γεγονός αποκαλυπτικό ως προς την κυρίαρχη ιδεολογία τής εποχής, τουλάχιστον στους κύκλους τής διανόησης. Έτσι, ο Petrie και οι οπαδοί του χλεύαζαν τις ιδέες τού Budge ως αδιανόητες και “αντιεπιστημονικές”…

Ο ΕΠΟΜΕΝΟΣ ΓΥΡΟΣ τού παρατεταμένου πολέμου, που σημάδεψε την κατάρρευση της εποχής τού μπρούντζου, απέναντι στους Λαούς τής Θάλασσας, έγινε περίπου τρεις δεκαετίες αργότερα, κατά τη βασιλεία τού Ραμσή Γ΄ (1186–1155 ΠΚΧ), του τελευταίου μεγάλου Αιγύπτιου φαραώ. Οι επιγραφές του επισημαίνουν ότι τα “Εννέα Τόξα” επανεμφανίστηκαν, με μια “συνωμοσία στα νησιά τους”… Αρκετές από τις φυλές που προαναφέρθηκαν ήταν και πάλι εκεί. Μαθαίνουμε επίσης πως έγιναν τουλάχιστον δυο μεγάλες μάχες, μια στην θάλασσα, και η άλλη στην στεριά.

Ο μέγας Φαραώ παρουσίασε με καμάρι τούς αιχμαλώτους του:
κατά σειρά ο Λίβυος, ο Νούβιος, ο Σύριος, ο Shasu, και ο
Χετταίος (ο… Έλληνας Αχαιός προφανώς απέδρασε!)

“Όταν όλα τέλειωσαν”, γράφει η Wikipedia για τους Λαούς τής Θάλασσας, “αρκετοί αρχηγοί ήταν αιχμάλωτοι: της Χετταίας, του Αμορού, και των Shasu, μεταξύ των ‘λαών τής στεριάς’, και των Tjeker, των ‘Sherden τής θάλασσας’, των ‘Teresh τής θάλασσας’, και των Peleset ή Φιλισταίων (στ’ όνομα των οποίων κάποιοι [;!] βλέπουν το αρχαίο ελληνικό όνομα, που σημαίνει λαός τής θάλασσας: Πελασγοί)”…⁽¹³⁾

• ⁽¹³⁾ Πελασγός: συσχετίζεται με το πελός (μελαψός) και Πέλοψ, ή το πέλας (ο πλησίον, ο άλλος άνθρωπος) και πελάζω-πλάζω, ή το περάω και πέρα (ως μεταναστευτικό φύλο). Σφάλλουν κι εδώ οι μελετητές, αφού δεν υπάρχει σχέση με το πέλαγος (< πλήσσω ή πλήττω, ήτοι χτυπώ).

Άραγε, τι συμπεράσματα μπορούμε να βγάλουμε; Κατ’ αρχάς, μας εκπλήσσει το γεγονός πως οι μελετητές μας δεν… εξεπλάγησαν καθόλου όταν διάβασαν ότι αιχμαλωτίστηκε κι ένας Χετταίος αρχηγός, με δεδομένο πως η Χετταία υπήρξε ένας από τους άσπονδους εχθρούς των Λαών τής Θάλασσας – κι ένα από τα μεγαλύτερά τους θύματα. Οι μελετητές, θα μου πείτε, τα ξέρουν αυτά και δεν εκπλήσσονται. Το ίδιο, άλλωστε, είχε ξανασυμβεί, και είχαν προηγηθεί σχετικές διαμαρτυρίες τού φαραώ στον Χετταίο μονάρχη – για όσο ακόμη υπήρχε Χεττιτική Αυτοκρατορία. Ναι, αλλά γιατί δεν μπαίνουν στον κόπο να το εξηγήσουν, αντί ν’ αναλώνονται στην προσπάθειά τους να εμπλέξουν τους Έλληνες σε αυτήν την… “θεωρία συνωμοσίας”;

Ο Ραμσής Γ΄ κόντρα στους
Λαούς τής Θάλασσας

Αλλά, επιτέλους, συνειδητοποιούμε το εξής: η καταστροφή των κατεστημένων πολιτισμών, πρωτίστως των Χετταίων και Μυκηναίων, ήταν προμελετημένη, κι ενταγμένη στην τακτική των Λαών τής Θάλασσας, έτσι ώστε ν’ αποκτήσουν μεγαλύτερο ναυτικό, κι επιπλέον, να στρατολογήσουν μαζικά στις χερσαίες τους δυνάμεις. Στο κάτω-κάτω, οι αυτοκρατορίες ανήκαν στις αριστοκρατίες, Χετταίων και Μυκηναίων. Τι άλλο θα μπορούσε να κάνει ένας απελπισμένος Έλληνας, ή κάποιος φουκαράς Μικρασιάτης, υπό αυτές τις συνθήκες, παρά ν’ ακολουθήσει τους ανθρώπους με τους οποίους μοιραζόταν την ίδια λαχτάρα για μια καλύτερη ζωή;

Όμως, τι κρίμα για τους μελετητές μας: οὐδεὶς Ἕλλην μεταξύ των αιχμαλώτων αρχηγών. Το πιο πιθανό είναι ότι μπόρεσε ν’ αποδράσει! Οι άλλοι αιχμάλωτοι ήταν αρχηγοί των Αμοριτών, που ζούσαν στη Συρία και τη Μεσοποταμία, κι ενδεχομένως κάποιας φυλής εβραίων: Shasu ήταν ένας αιγυπτιακός όρος για περιπλανώμενους νομάδες, και τουλάχιστον μια από τις φυλές τους λάτρευε τον εβραϊκό θεό Γιαχβέ. Οι υπόλοιποι ήταν ναύαρχοι.

Τι άλλο θα μπορούσε να κάνει ένας απελπισμένος Έλληνας, ή κάποιος
φουκαράς Μικρασιάτης, παρά ν’ ακολουθήσει τους ανθρώπους με
τους οποίους μοιραζόταν την ίδια λαχτάρα για μια καλύτερη ζωή;

Ο φαραώ έκλεινε την έκθεσή του ὡς ἑξῆς: “Έσφαξα τους Denyen στα νησιά τους, έκαψα” τους Tjeker και Peleset… Άφηνε να εννοηθεί πως ακολούθησαν κάποιες θαλάσσιες επιδρομές του, μερικές εκστρατείες καταστολής, κάπου αλλού στη Μεσόγειο. Στο Αιγαίο; Πού, ποια, και ποιων ήταν αυτά “τα νησιά”; Όποιες και αν είναι οι απαντήσεις, οι αλυσιδωτές αντιδράσεις συνεχίστηκαν μ’ επιθέσεις αντεκδίκησης. Ήταν η σειρά των Αιγυπτίων να καταστρέψουν – μα η καταστροφή δεν φέρει υπογραφή…

Η κυρία των Μυκηνών (νωπογραφία)

Ο Όμηρος αναφέρεται σε κάποια επίθεση των Αχαιών ενάντια στο Δέλτα τού Νείλου, με τον Μενέλαο να το θίγει αυτό στην Ὀδύσσεια,, όταν αφηγείται τα της επιστροφής του στην Σπάρτη από τον Τρωικό. Και δεν ήταν η μοναδική ανάλογη ενέργεια των Μυκηναίων κατά της Αιγύπτου, όπου πήγαιναν για… “πλάκα” – μετά του ωφελίμου, ασφαλώς! Παίρνοντας υπόψη τούς συνεχείς τσακωμούς ανάμεσα στις μεγάλες μυκηναϊκές βασιλικές οικογένειες, αλλά και μέσα στους κόλπους τους, η υπόθεση πως πιθανόν ν’ αυτοκαταστράφηκαν ολοσχερώς έχει διατυπωθεί από παλιά, και υπέρ της φαίνεται να συνηγορεί και ο έγκριτος ιστορικός Θουκυδίδης:

“Σε παλαιούς γαρ καιρούς, οι Έλληνες και οι βάρβαροι των ακτών και των νησιών… υπέκυπταν στον πειρασμό να στραφούν στην πειρατεία, υπό την καθοδήγηση των πιο επιφανών ανδρών τους… Εξαπέλυαν επιδρομές σε πόλεις απροστάτευτες από τείχη… και τις λεηλατούσαν… αφού τέτοιου είδους κατορθώματα δεν θεωρούνταν τότε ατιμωτικά, αλλ’ αντίθετα μπορούσαν να χαρίσουν και κάποια δόξα”……

Οι “Αχαιοί” από την σκοπιά των Χετταίων

Χεττιτικό άρμα

ΧΕΤΤΙΤΙΚΑ ΚΕΙΜΕΝΑ, από την περίοδο περί το 1400–1220, αναφέρουν μια χώρα στα δυτικά τής Μικράς Ασίας, ὀνόματι Ahhiyawa (ή Ahhiya). Κατά τα φαινόμενα, πρόκειται για την χεττιτική απόδοση της λέξης “Ἀχαΐα”, με την ευρύτερη έννοια της “γης των Αχαιών”. Η άποψη αυτή αμφισβητήθηκε έντονα από άλλους χεττιτολόγους (βλέπε υποσημείωση 9). Επιπλέον, με βάση τα ἐν λόγῳ κείμενα, η γεωγραφική θέση τής Ahhiyawa/Ahhiya δεν μπορεί να προσδιοριστεί επακριβώς. Όπως και να έχει το θέμα, φαίνεται πως η “Αχαΐα” και η Χετταία είχαν τότε διπλωματικές σχέσεις, μα και στρατιωτικές εμπλοκές. Έχει βρεθεί επιστολή τού Χετταίου μονάρχη προς τον “Αχαιό” ομόλογό του, όπου τον χαρακτηρίζει “Μεγάλο Βασιλέα”, ισότιμο των σπουδαίων ηγεμόνων τής εποχής τού μπρούντζου, όπως οι βασιλείς τής Αιγύπτου, της Βαβυλωνίας και της Ασσυρίας. Αναφερόμενος στη Millawanda – ή Milawata: Μίλητο; – ως μια πόλη στην επικράτεια των “Αχαιών”,⁽¹⁴⁾ ο Χετταίος μονάρχης κάνει λόγο για ένα “επεισόδιο Wilusa”, σε περιοχή ελεγχόμενη από τον ίδιο, όπου οι “Αχαιοί” συντάχθηκαν με τους εχθρούς του. Wilusa ήταν μάλλον η Τροία. (Παραβάλετε λ.χ. το αρχαϊκόν Ϝίλιον, μετέπειτα Ἴλιον, όπως λεγόταν η τρωική ακρόπολη). Το “επεισόδιο” αυτό δεν αποκλείεται να έχει σχέση με τον Τρωικό πόλεμο.⁽¹⁵⁾

Οι ερωτευμένοι Ελένη και Πάρις,
του Jacques-Louis David (1788)

• ⁽¹⁴⁾ Οι Μινωίτες είχαν δημιουργήσει στη Μίλητο ίσως τη σημαντικότερη εγκατάστασή τους σε μικρασιατικό έδαφος. Οι Μυκηναίοι την κληρονόμησαν, όταν υποκατέστησαν τους Κρήτες ως ηγέτιδα δύναμη στο Αιγαίο περί το 1450 ΠΚΧ. Η πόλη μεγάλωσε κι απέκτησε ευημερία, όπως φαίνεται όχι μόνον από τ’ αρχαιολογικά ευρήματα, αλλά και από τα χεττιτικά κείμενα, που την αναφέρουν ως το σπουδαιότερο ορμητήριο των “Αχαιών” κατά τις επιχειρήσεις τους στη Μικρασία, επεκτείνοντας έτσι την παρουσία τους στην Ἰασό, την Ἔφεσο (Apasa), και αλλού.

• ⁽¹⁵⁾ Η διασταύρωση στοιχείων, δυστυχώς, είναι αδύνατη αφού, αντίθετα από τους Χετταίους, οι Μυκηναίοι δεν φαίνεται να κατέγραφαν τέτοιες… “λεπτομέρειες”! Τ’ αρχεία που διαθέτουμε σε Γραμμική Β αναφέρονται μόνο στη διοικητική γραφειοκρατία των ανακτόρων. Ακόμη και το εμπόριο απουσιάζει από τ’ αρχεία! Έτσι, είναι αδύνατο ν’ ανασυστήσουμε από τα κείμενά τους τις πολιτικές εξελίξεις στην όψιμη εποχή τού μπρούντζου. (Χετταίοι – Μυκηναίοι: 1–0!)

Στο δεύτερο μισό τού 13ου αιώνα, ξέσπασε μια μακροχρόνια εξέγερση κατά των Χετταίων, με την στήριξη των “Αχαιών”, κι επικεφαλής τον Piyama-Radu, που είχε παντρέψει την κόρη του με τον υποτελή ηγεμόνα τής “Μιλήτου”. Η ιστορία του έχει ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον καθώς φαίνεται να συνδέεται μ’ εκείνην του Τρωικού πολέμου. Είναι μια εξέγερση αξιοσημείωτη, γιατί διήρκεσε πάνω από 35 χρόνια, και απετέλεσε σοβαρή απειλή για τρεις διαδοχικούς Χετταίους βασιλιάδες· προκάλεσε μεγάλη αναταραχή στις περιοχές Wilusa, Arzawa,⁽¹⁶⁾ και Seha, και οδήγησε σε μια εισβολή στη Lazpa (Λέσβο;), που πέρασε στον έλεγχο των “Αχαιών”. Η προαναφερθείσα επιστολή στάλθηκε εκείνην την εποχή, σε μιαν απόπειρα του Χετταίου μονάρχη να πείσει τον “Αχαιό” ομόλογό του ν’ αποκαταστήσει την ειρήνη. Μεταξύ άλλων, αναφέρει κάποιον αδερφό τού “Αχαιού” άνακτα, ονόματι Tawagalawa, που αρκετοί ευφάνταστοι “διαβάζουν” ως “Ἐτεοκλῆς”…⁽¹⁷⁾ Πιο αμφιλεγόμενη είναι ίσως η “ταυτοποίηση” του Piyama-Radu: εικάζεται πως “ανταποκρίνεται στο αρχέτυπο” του Τρωαδίτη βασιλιά Πριάμου… Έτσι όπως πάνε, μάλλον θα ξαναγράψουν την Ιλιάδα!

• ⁽¹⁶⁾ “Αχαΐα” και Arzawa συνασπίστηκαν αρκετές φορές εναντίον των Χετταίων. Η Arzawa ήταν βασίλειο, ή ομοσπονδία τοπικών ηγεμόνων, στη δυτική Μικρασία, με πρωτεύουσα την Έφεσο.

• ⁽¹⁷⁾ Η ιστορία τού γιού τού Οἰδίποδος, βασιλιά τής Θήβας, εντάσσεται στον Θηβαϊκό κύκλο, όχι στον Τρωικό με τις ιστορίες των Ατρειδών. Αδερφός τού Ετεοκλή δεν ήταν κάποιος βασιλιάς των Μυκηνών, αλλά ο Πολυνείκης, με τον οποίο μονομάχησε για τον θρόνο, με αποτέλεσμα να σκοτωθούν και οι δυο. Εδώ εμπλέκεται και η ιστορία τής Ἀντιγόνης.

Μέρη που αναφέρονται σε αυτό το Χρονικό (αριστερόστροφα): Wiluša, Lazpa, Apaša, Millawanda, Seha, Mira, Arzawa, Hapalla, Lukka, Alašiya, Tarša, Ugarit, Amurra, Hatti, Hattuša.

Οι εχθροπραξίες “Αχαιών” και Χετταίων αρχίζουν περί το 1400 ΠΚΧ. Χεττιτικά αρχεία αναφέρονται στις επιχειρήσεις τού “Αχαιού” πολέμαρχου Attarsiya στη νοτιοδυτική Μικρασία, πιθανότατα στη Λυκία, ενάντια σε ηγεμόνες υποτελείς στους Χετταίους. Πρόκειται, μάλλον, για την πρώτη εκστρατεία “Αχαιών” στη μικρασιατική ενδοχώρα: συνδυάζεται με τα όλο και περισσότερα μυκηναϊκά ευρήματα στη Μίλητο αυτήν την περίοδο (αρχές 14ου αιώνα ΠΚΧ), γεγονός που υποδηλώνει πως αρκετοί Έλληνες εγκαταστάθηκαν στην περιοχή. Η πόλη χρησιμοποιήθηκε από τον Ατταρσία ως στρατιωτική βάση. Οι εχθροπραξίες συνεχίστηκαν ως το 1250 ΠΚΧ περίπου. Οι “Αχαιοί” αναμιγνύονταν στη Μικρά Ασία, στηρίζοντας αντιχεττιτικές εξεγέρσεις, ή μέσω ντόπιων υποτελών, που ο “Αχαιός” άναξ εκμεταλλευόταν για να επεκτείνει την επιρροή του. Οι εικασίες, φυσικά, δεν λείπουν κι εδώ. Αρκετοί μελετητές υποθέτουν πως ο πολέμαρχος δεν ήταν άλλος από τον Ἀτρέα, τον μυθικό βασιλιά των Μυκηνών, και πατέρα τού Ἀγαμέμνονος. Άλλοι, επισημαίνοντας πως οι Χετταίοι δεν μιλούν για τον “μεγάλο βασιλέα τής Αχαΐας”, υποστηρίζουν πως θα ήταν κάποιος στρατηγός, συνώνυμος του Ατρέα ή με παρόμοιο όνομα, ή τέλος, πως Ατταρσίας σημαίνει “Ἀτρείδης”, άρα, ήταν μέλος τής βασιλικής δυναστείας.

Παρεμβαίνοντας στις υποθέσεις τής Ανατολίας, ώστε να υπονομεύσει τους Χετταίους, ο πολέμαρχος επέλεξε να πλήξει υποτελείς τους ηγεμόνες, όπως ο Madduwatta, από την Arzawa (Luwia),⁽¹⁸⁾ που τον νίκησε επανειλημμένα, καθώς μάλιστα, ο στρατός του διέθετε εκατό πολεμικά άρματα. Όμως, αποσύρθηκε τελικά από τη Μικρασία, για να προετοιμάσει μιαν εκστρατεία με στόχο την Alashiya (Κύπρο;). Στο πλευρό του είχε τους Lukka (“Λύκιους”), που παρείχαν την αναγκαία ναυτική υποστήριξη, όπως και αρκετούς άλλους Μικρασιάτες συμμάχους του – ως και τον Madduwatta (Μαδυάττη;), που αποφάσισε τελικά ν’ αλλάξει στρατόπεδο. Οι Χετταίοι ανησύχησαν σφόδρα, καθώς θεωρούσαν το νησί υποτελές σε αυτούς. Τελικά, οι εισβολείς τούς νίκησαν, κι έτσι το νησί πέρασε στον έλεγχό τους. Η μυκηναϊκή παρουσία στην Κύπρο επιβεβαιώνεται, όπως είδαμε, και με αρχαιολογικά ευρήματα από τις ανασκαφές.

Μικρασιάτικα ιερογλυφικά

• ⁽¹⁸⁾ Οι Λούβιοι ζούσαν στην κεντρική, δυτική, ή νότια Μικρασία, αλλά και στο βόρειο Λεβάντε, κατά τις εποχές τού μπρούντζου και του σιδήρου. Μιλούσαν τη λουβική γλώσσα, που ανήκε στις ινδοευρωπαϊκές τής Ανατολίας. Η γραφή τους ήταν σφηνοειδής ἐκ Μεσοποταμίας, ή μια γηγενής ιερογλυφική γραφή, που ενίοτε χρησιμοποιούσαν και οι γλωσσικά συγγενείς Χετταίοι.

Οι επόμενες δεκαετίες (γύρω στο 1380–1320 ΠΚΧ) ήταν περίοδος μυκηναϊκής επέκτασης στις ακτές τής Μικράς Ασίας. Το 1320–1315 εκδηλώθηκε άλλη μια εξέγερση κατά των Χετταίων στην Arzawa, σε σύμπραξη με τη “Μίλητο” και με την υποστήριξη των “Αχαιών”, που φαίνεται πως κατείχαν στο Αιγαίο αρκετά νησιά, εντύπωση που επίσης στηρίζεται σε αρχαιολογικά ευρήματα. Τελικά, οι Χετταίοι επιβλήθηκαν περί το 1300 ΠΚΧ. Ο βασιλιάς τής Arzawa κατάφερε να διαφύγει στα ελεγχόμενα από τους “Αχαιούς” εδάφη, και τότε το βασίλειό του τριχοτομήθηκε: η νότια επαρχία, Mira, έγινε γνωστή ως Καρία, η βόρεια, Seha, ως Λυδία· ενώ η ανατολική ονομάστηκε Hapalla (η Πισιδία των Ελλήνων). Έτσι γράφτηκε το τέλος τής ιστορίας τού ἐν λόγῳ βασιλείου, που πέρασε στη λήθη, και βγήκε στην επιφάνεια χάρη στ’ αρχεία των Χετταίων.

Αν όντως οι πληροφορίες των αρχείων αυτών αποδίδουν ως έναν βαθμό την πραγματικότητα, τότε φαίνεται πως οι ανακτορικοί πολιτισμοί Μυκηναίων και Χετταίων, Αιγαίου και Ανατολίας, κατατρώγονταν από το ίδιο σαράκι…

Λούβιοι: ο ελλείπων κρίκος τής εποχής τού μπρούντζου στο Αιγαίο

ΈΣΤΩ ΚΑΘΥΣΤΕΡΗΜΕΝΑ, ΜΕΛΕΤΗΣΑ το βιβλίο τού Eberhard Zangger, The Luwian Civilization / The Missing Link in the Aegean Bronze Age (2016). Είναι επιτακτικό να παραθέσω τα βασικά για το θέμα μας σημεία του:

The Luwian Civilization / The Missing Link in the Aegean Bronze Age. Εξώφυλλο: μάλλον αναπαράσταση της Τροίας, της κορυφαίας λουβικής πόλης, όπως την φαντάζεται ο Eberhard Zangger.

“Εδώ και είκοσι χρόνια, έχω προτείνει την χρονολογική αναθεώρηση των πολιτικών και οικονομικών εξελίξεων στις χώρες τής ανατολικής Μεσογείου κατά τον 13ο αιώνα ΠΚΧ, συνδέοντας περιστασιακά τρεις πολέμους… Πρώτα έγιναν οι εισβολές των Λαών τής Θάλασσας, όταν το ναυτικό των συμμαχικών λουβικών κρατιδίων κινήθηκε από την ανατολική ακτή τού Αιγαίου προς τα νοτιοανατολικά. Μετά από μερικά χρόνια, οι Λούβιοι δέχτηκαν την επίθεση των συνασπισμένων ελληνικών δυνάμεων, που έμεινε στην ιστορία ως ο Τρωικός πόλεμος. Τέλος, ξέσπασε στην Ελλάδα εμφύλιος πόλεμος.”

“Οι Λούβιοι συμμάχησαν κι έφτιαξαν στόλο με γρήγορα, ευκίνητα πλοία… φτάνοντας στην καίριας σημασίας χεττιτική μεθόριο – Κύπρο και Συρία. Οι μισθοφορικοί στρατοί των Lukka και Sherden… δεν πολεμούσαν πια στο πλευρό τού Χετταίου βασιλιά, αλλά ενάντιά του, ως ο συνασπισμός των Λαών τής Θάλασσας… Η πρωτεύουσα Χαττούσα έσβησε από προσώπου γης ἐν μιᾷ νυκτί – και μαζί της η Χεττιτική Αυτοκρατορία.”

Η Πύλη τής Σφίγγας στην Hattusa,
πρωτεύουσα των Χετταίων

“Αἴφνης, τα κρατίδια της δυτικής Μικράς Ασίας ήλεγχαν μια τεράστια περιοχή που εκτεινόταν από τη Μακεδονία, μέσω της Ανατολίας, ως τη Συρία και την Χαναάν… Τόσο η πρόσβαση στον Εύξεινο, όσο και η σύνδεση μέσω Κύπρου και Συρίας με τη Μεσοποταμία, ήταν τώρα υπό τον έλεγχό τους… Μετά από δέκα περίπου χρόνια, οι ενωμένες ελληνικές δυνάμεις επιτέθηκαν στη δυτική Μικρά Ασία – και η ανάμνηση αυτών των γεγονότων ήταν ο ‘Τρωικός πόλεμος’… που, άρα, αποτελούσε αντεπίθεση ενάντια στους έως τότε νικηφόρους Λαούς τής Θάλασσας.”

“Ενώ οι Μυκηναίοι βασιλείς πολεμούσαν στην Τροία, οι σύζυγοί τους, και κάποιοι όχι και τόσο άξιοι υπασπιστές τους, είχαν καταλάβει τούς θρόνους. Όταν οι επιζώντες νικηφόροι βασιλείς επέστρεψαν, πολλοί από τους ἐν λόγῳ υπασπιστές δεν ήθελαν να εγκαταλείψουν την εξουσία. Ξέσπασε εμφύλιος πόλεμος που κατέκαψε σταδιακά τη μιαν ακρόπολη μετά από την άλλη.” (Ο λουβικός πολιτισμός, Eberhard Zangger.⁽¹⁹⁾ Βλέπε επίσης Χρονικό 5, Οι Οδύσσειες του Τρωικού).

• ⁽¹⁹⁾ Το 2014, ο Eberhard Zangger ίδρυσε το διεθνές μη κερδοσκοπικό ίδρυμα Luwian Studies (Λουβικές σπουδές).

Επόμενο Χρονικό 21. ΙΒΗΡΙΚΟ “EL DORADO” ● Μινωίτες, Μυκηναίοι, Φοίνικες στην Ιβηρία ● Ἑσπερίδες, Μακάρων Νῆσοι ● Σαρδηνία ● Ὀδυσσεύς, Καλυψώ, Οφιούσα ● Ταρτησσός

• >> Χρονικό 21. ΙΒΗΡΙΚΟ “EL DORADO”
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Μυκηναϊκό χρυσό διάδημα

Chronicle 26. IBERIAN CROSS-CHECK

Chronicle 26. IBERIAN CROSS-CHECK

/ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΑ/ Χρονικό 26. ΙΒΗΡΙΚΗ ΔΙΑΣΤΑΥΡΩΣΗ (ΣΤΟΙΧΕΙΩΝ)

● Naucratis ● Adolf Schulten and Dan Stanislawski ● The Trojan War Odysseys ● Metal Attraction ● Cassiterides ● Balearics ● Arganthonios ● Graeco-Tartessian Friendship Against Phoenicians and Punics

Michales Loukovikas

ALTHOUGH DAN STANISLAWSKI accepted there were Contacts Between the Ancient Civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean and Iberia,⁽¹⁾ he was against the idea of any Aegean presence in the peninsula, and remained faithful to the mainstream scholarly favouritism towards Phoenicia. Commenting on the “claims that there was contact” between Iberia and Crete, he conceded it is “a seductive idea… a reasonable hypothesis”, but “as yet there is no convincing evidence that the Mediterranean island route to the west was used” by Minoans.

• ⁽¹⁾ See the beginning of Chronicle 21 with the first paragraph of Chapter 7 from Dan Stanislawski’s Study in Historical-Political Geography: The Individuality of Portugal (1959). His other studies on Portugal are: Portugal’s Other Kingdom: The Algarve (1963), and Landscapes of Bacchus: The Vine in Portugal (1970).

The Minoan international trade: colonies and emporia

Such tangible, “convincing evidence” in the hands of archaeologists, i.e. a load of Egyptian trade items found in Spain, is of “a somewhat later period”, after the fall of the Minoans, c. 1400-1200 BCE. Although we cannot rule out the possibility of “Phoenician intermediaries”, we must have in mind that in this “somewhat later period” (late Bronze Age), especially in Occidental Mediterranean, sea trade was in the hands of those who brought about the fall of the Minoans, meaning the Mycenaeans – who, strangely enough, are not even mentioned by the American professor! Therefore, his assertion that the Egyptian trade items found in Spain “almost surely may [!] be associated with Phoenician intermediaries”, is anything but scientific.

Besides, the Aegean presence in Egypt, i.e. the origin of these trade items, dates back to at least the Mycenaean times, and possibly further back into the Minoan age, when a trade settlement was founded in the Nile Delta under the aegis of the pharaohs, namely Naucratis (Ναύκρατις). It was the first and, for much of its early history, the only permanent Hellenic colony in Egypt, acting as a symbiotic nexus for the interchange of Egyptian and Grecian trade items, art and culture. When a historian “forgets” the Mycenaeans and Naucratis, it means he’s wearing “Phoenician myopic glasses”!

The Calydonian [Boar] Hunt, from a Laconian black-figure cup by the Naucratis Painter (ca 555 BCE)

● Naucratis is located in the Nile Delta, on its westernmost branch, c. 70 km southeast of its mouth, where Alexandria later rose; it was not only the first Greek settlement in Egypt, but also its most important harbour in antiquity until the rise of Alexander’s city. Its first period is obscure, due to the collapse of Mycenaean civilization and the ensuing “Dark ages” (1100-750 BCE). A cultural “renaissance” during the 8th century brought about renewed Hellenic contacts with the Orient and its two important river civilizations of the Nile and Mesopotamia. Herodotus writes that a shrine known as Hellenion was a co-operative enterprise financed by nine Greek poleis: four Ionian (Chios, Clazomenae, Teos and Phocaea), four Dorian (Rhodes, Halicarnassus, Cnidus and Phaselis), and one Aeolian (Mytilene). Miletus, Samos, and Aegina had their own separate sanctuaries. This means that the natives of at least twelve cities of Hellas worked in a collaboration that was not only rare but proved to be lasting.

● The sister port of Naucratis was the harbour town of Heracleion or Thonis, Egypt’s main seaport to Greece, which was only discovered in 2000 by a French underwater archaeologist, Franck Goddio. Its ruins are located 2.5 km off the modern coast. The city was built on some adjoining islands connected with bridges and intersected by canals. It submerged into the sea in the 6th or 7th century CE, probably due to major earthquakes and floods. The “Stele of Naucratis”, with a pharaonic decree, describes Heracleion as a “harbour in the Sea of Hellenes”, referring to the Mediterranean.⁽²⁾ Its twin “Stele of Heracleion” was recovered in 2000. The city’s Grecian name is linked to a large temple of Khonsu, whom the Greeks identified with Heracles. It is believed the city was visited by the great hero, or even by Paris and Helen on their flight from the jealous Menelaus, before the Trojan war. Heracleion’s mythic wealth was lauded by Homer, as well.

• ⁽²⁾ The Egyptian pharaohs, let’s remind each “spectacled” historian, described the Mediterranean as “the Sea of Hellenes”, not as “the Sea of Phoenicians”!

The hetaera Phryne Removing Her Veils, by James Pradier (bronze, 1845)

● A celebrated Thracian hetaera, who lived in Naucratis in the 6th century BCE, was Rhodōpis. According to Herodotus, she was a fellow-slave of the fable teller Aesop, with whom she had a secret love affair. Charaxus, Sappho’s brother, who had gone to Naucratis as a merchant, fell in love with her, and ransomed her from slavery with a large sum of money. Sappho accused Rhodōpis in a poem of robbing her brother of his property. Other lovers – insist Diodorus and Pliny – erected… even a pyramid for her! Rhodōpis (rosy-cheeked), or Doricha, was the model for the original version of the Cinderella story recorded later by Strabo.

● Athenaeus, born in Naucratis, flourishing in the late 2nd – early 3rd centuries CE, was a Greek rhetorician, grammarian and gastronomist. His books have been lost, but a 15-volume synopsis of his 30-volume Deipnosophistae (Banquet Connoisseurs) mostly survives. It is an immense store-house of information, on matters linked to dining, music, songs and dances, games, courtesans, and luxury. Guests included wealthy persons, patrons of art, and scholars, jurists, musicians, and others, as well, who described the lifestyle, the arts and scientific knowledge of the Greeks. In the course of discussing classic authors, they made quotations from nearly 800 writers and 2,500 works, many of them unrecorded. Thus we are entrusted much valuable information about the ancient world and many authors that would be otherwise unknown. (We have consulted Deipnosophistae repeatedly in our Chronicles).

Campaspe, Alexander’s courtesan, a prominent
citizen of Larissa, by John William Godward (1896)

● An Athenaeus’ contemporary, a bit older, was Julius Pollux (Ἰούλιος Πολυδεύκης), also born in Naucratis, flourishing in the late 2nd century CE and living a long life of more than 80 years. He was a grammarian, sophist, scholar and rhetorician, whom Commodus appointed a professor-chair of rhetoric in the Athenian Academy – due to his melodious voice, according to Lives of the Sophists by Philostratus. No work of his rhetoric has survived. His valuable extant work is Onomasticón (Ὀνομαστικόν), a thesaurus, or a dictionary, of Attic synonyms and phrases in ten books, arranged not alphabetically but according to subject-matter. It supplies in passing plenty of rare information on many points of classical antiquity – objects in daily life, the theatre, music, politics – and quotes numerous fragments of lost works. Thus, Pollux became invaluable for William Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1842). (We have repeatedly consulted Pollux in our Chronicles, as well).

● Under the circumstances, Stanislawski, an expert on Portugal, a scholar whom we described as wearing “Phoenician myopic glasses”, cannot be suspected of pro-Hellenic bias in his narrative about those fateful events in Iberia, related in three Chronicles (21, 22, and 25). At the same time, we’ll be able to cross-check the accuracy of our own testimony. But before that, let us give the floor to the German historian and archaeologist Adolf Schulten, who will give an answer to the question concerning the contacts between Iberia and the Aegean. Schulten (1870–1960), who also studied in Greece, dedicated his life to Spain, where he conducted extensive research and excavations; therefore, he is considered a key influence on Spanish archaeological studies. Among others, he searched – but, unfortunately, with no success – to find Tartessos in 1924 and Maenaca in 1948. Very popular in Portugal and Spain are his biographies on two great figures of the struggle of the Lusitanians against the Romans: Viriathus (1927) and Quintus Sertorius (1926).

Statue of Viriathus in Zamora

● The great Lusitanian hero, Viriathus, started fighting after a massacre committed by the Romans in Lusitania with 30,000 victims. He was assassinated in his sleep, in 139 BCE, by the three men he had sent for peace talks with the Romans, who bribed them instead. When the conspirators asked for their prize, the Romans said: “Rome does not pay traitors who kill their chief”! Big talk to avoid payment, since the same tactic was used again in the next century to get rid of Sertorius, whose aim was to create an independent Iberian Republic. He was a Roman statesman and general, opponent of the dictator Sulla during the Roman civil wars. His popular, pro-Iberian policy had displeased many Roman aristocrats, and was eventually assassinated, also by traitors, during a feast, in 72 BCE. When his will was read, they saw he named as his chief beneficiary the… chief conspirator! The next year, the “victorious” Pompey, returning from Iberia to Italy, helped in the suppression of the gladiators’ insurgency led by Spartacus, with whom Sertorius was in contact.

Schulten made a thorough examination of the Mediterranean Spanish coast in 1919, preparing a critical edition of Ora Maritima (Sea Coast), by Avienus (hence of the Massaliote Periplus, as well), a study that led him to Tartessos.⁽³⁾ Excavating in the current Doñana National Park, close to the mouth of the Guadalquivir, he found a Roman town in Cerro del Trigo, which he believed was located on the remains of the legendary city. But, despite all his efforts, he found no trace of it. The result of his excavations, among others, was the publication of a study in 1924. A second edition, greatly improved and expanded, followed in 1945, and reissued in 2006. It was entitled: Tartessos – Contribution to the Oldest History in the Occident:

• ⁽³⁾ We followed the same route in Chronicle 22: An Iberian Periplus Revival.

The Palace of Minos at Knossos

TARTESSOS: CONTRIBUTION TO THE OLDEST HISTORY IN THE OCCIDENT

THE MOST ANCIENT REFERENCES

“BY ALL ACCOUNTS, AN ORIENTAL PEOPLE that, before the Phoenicians, sailed along the coast of Spain were the Cretans, the people of Minos, the oldest maritime power in the Mediterranean… Cretan toponyms are found even in Corsica. In Sardinia we encounter Cretan copper bars. In the Balearics, Aegean vases and bull heads similar to those of Crete have been discovered. Oriental ornaments of ivory, turquoise, or amethyst, have been found on the southeastern coasts of Spain… It seems that the Iberian alphabet contains eight Cretan graphemes… According to Egyptian monuments, the Keftiu, i.e. the Cretans, had large amounts of silver. This silver could have come from Spain… In Falmouth of Cornwall a tin bar has been found with the characteristic shape of Cretan copper bars, i.e. the double swallowtail. This fact could be an indication of exchange between Crete and Tartessos, as the Tartessians traded with the Oestrimni [see Chronicle 21, Legendary Odyssean Lisbon], who sailed to England… Further proof that the Cretans were sailing to Spain can be found in the name of Tartessos itself. The termination in -essos is primitive pre-Hellenic of Asia Minor, mainly of southern Asia Minor. It is very widespread in the regions of Caria and Crete. Thus, perhaps the name of Tartessos does not come from the Phocaeans, but from the Cretans and the Carians. The toponyms ending in ‘-essos’ spread to the Occident, as is evidenced by their appearance in Sicily (Herbessos, Telmessos). If the name of Tartessos is Cretan, then we need to examine whether the Phoenician ‘Tarshish’ is derived from ‘Tartessos’, rather than the indigenous toponym”…

The Statuette of Geryon (6th century BCE), bronze sculpture, showing the 3-headed giant, probably found in Chiusi in Italy, one of the towns of the Etruscan dodecapolis.

THE PRE-TARTESSIANS

“Hispanic [Iberian] daggers of copper and silver of the 3rd millennium have been found in Crete… Where did the silver and tin that the ancient 3rd-millennium-BC Oriental empires used come from?… It is reasonable to suppose that in the 3rd millennium BC, the Orient extracted silver and, above all, tin, from Andalusia and that the Cretans or Carians were probably the agents of this trade, as were later the Phoenicians”…

TARTESSOS AND THE PHOENICIANS

“Geryon, considered as the personification of the Tartessos [Guadalquivir] River, does not pertain to Gades, as later ignorance would have it, but to Tartessos. And the island Erytheia, his dwelling, which took his daughter’s name (Pausanias), could not have been the island of Gades, but the island formed by the Tartessos Delta, in front of which his castle rose. But when Tartessos disappeared, confusion made the figures of Geryon and Erytheia to be mistakenly transferred to Gades. However, the most ancient mythographers clearly place Erytheia on the Delta of the Tartessos River. Stesichorus says that Erytheia ‘faces’ the sources of the river, i.e. its mouth. Pherecydes asserts that Heracles went to Tartessos, and, therefore, places Erytheia here and not at Gades”…

TARTESSOS AND THE PHOCAEANS

“There is another testimony on the Phocaean trips to Tartessos: the Ionian names of islands and coastal sites that are found all along the way, on the Italian coast, in Sardinia and Spain, way down to Tartessos. These are several toponyms ending in –οῦσα [-ussa], widespread in Ionian regions on the coast of Asia Minor, and their presence in the Occident undoubtedly reveals the passage of the Ionians, of the Phocaeans. On the Italian coast we can find: Πιθηκοῦσα [Pithecussa] (Ischia), Ἀνθεμοῦσα [Anthemussa], Σειρηνοῦσα [Seirenussa, Sirenuse] (islands in the Gulf of Salerno). In Sardinia: Ἰχνοῦσα [Ichnussa] (the Ionian name of the island). On the eastern Spanish coast: Μηλοῦσα, Kρoηοῦσα [Melussa, Croeussa] (Mallorca and Minorca?), Πιτυοῦσα, Ὀφιοῦσα [Pityussa, Ophiussa] (Ibiza, Formentera). On the southern coast: Πιτυοῦσα [Pityussa] (Cape Sabinal), Καλαθοῦσα [Calathussa] (in the Bay of Huelva?), Κοτινοῦσα [Cotinussa], old name of the island of Gades. On the southwestern coast: ἄκρα Ὀφιούσης (prominens Ophiussae, Avienus), Cape Roca – the extreme toponym indicating the limit of the Phocaean sphere. We know from this old [Massaliote] Periplus that the neighbouring estuary of the Tagus was linked to Tartessos through a Phocaean commercial road”…

Harvester Vase: a Minoan stone vessel from Hagia Triada, Crete (1500-1450 BCE), originally covered in gold leaf. The relief depicts a sowing festival: a central figure shaking rattle leads the others singing and carrying pitchforks. Notice the diminishing of figures in one of the oldest examples of perspective.

THE TARTESSIAN CULTURE

“Could perhaps Tartessos be a colony founded by some Oriental people of those that were part of the Aegean civilization, e.g. of Crete?… There are reasons to support this hypothesis: the ancient culture of the pre-Tartessians, the numerous coincidences with the Orient and the older oriental nations, the possibility that primitive navigators have founded a colony in Andalusia, as later the Tyrians founded Gades. And besides all this, the name itself of Tartessos alludes to the Orient. If Tartessos were a colony of Aegean navigators, e.g. of Cretans or Carians, this would at once explain its ancient and high culture, as well as the coincidences with Crete in metallurgy, writing, the bull cult, etc. As an Aegean colony, Tartessos would have been founded around the 3rd or 2nd millennium BC, and certainly before the Tyrian voyages. Thus the Tyrians would have invaded the maritime domain of the old Aegean navigators, both in the Occident and in the Orient. A Cretan Tartessos could only be founded before the fall of Cretan power (in 1200). Thence, the ruin of Crete would have influenced the Occidental colony, explaining thus the scarce resistance of the Tartessians against the Tyrians. The possibility that Tartessos is an ancient Aegean colony must therefore be studied.”

All the more so, because the Minoans apparently imported tin from Tartessos at the mouth of the Guadalquivir. At any rate, what strikes me is that in Schulten’s text, too, the Mycenaeans are… conspicuously absent! “The fall of Cretan power” did not take place “in 1200”, when the Bronze Age collapsed, together with the Mycenaean power, but c. 1450 BCE, when the Mycenaeans took over Crete. Then they inherited not only the Minoan Thalassocracy, but the network of the Cretan colonies and emporia, too. The Bronze Age collapse coincided with the Trojan War that was followed by a westward “exodus” of Trojans and Hellenes:

The Arrival of Aeneas at Pallanteum, by Claude Lorrain

Odysseys in the Aftermath of the Trojan War: Colonization of Iberia

THE TROJAN WAR, in the time when it was fought, was not a heroic war. It was accompanied by the eastward movement of the Sea Peoples, and the westward “exodus” of both Hellenes and Trojans. For sure, the latter were in search of a new homeland. As for the Greeks who managed to survive, after a long, ten-year absence, with the spoils not rewarding enough, as Strabo says, were not welcome back home (see Chronicle 20, The Luwian Civilization: The Missing Link in the Aegean Bronze Age), and either had a tragic end (e.g. Agamemnon), or were forced to follow the life of pirates. Such fate awaited “heroes” such as Aeneas, Antenor and Opsicella; or Diomedes, Menelaus, Menestheus, Odysseus and Teucer – for whom “later poets sang”…

Breogán and the Tower of Heracles, A Coruña

Aeneas is linked to Rome, while Antenor and Opsicella founded cities in the Italian North, with the latter ending up in Biscay. Among the Greeks, Diomedes, son of Tydeus, arrived in Lusitania and Galicia, where he founded Tyde (today’s Tui), an Aetolian city, as Silius Italicus writes. Menestheus, the leader of the Athenians in the Trojan War, was expelled from Athens by Theseus’ sons, and set ashore with his entourage in Andalusia, at the mouth of the river Criso (Guadalete), where he founded a colony and an oracle in his name: it was Portus Menesthei, today’s El Puerto de Santa María (see Chronicle 22). Odysseus founded and walled Lisbon (see Chronicle 5, Odysseus and Calypso in Odyssey-Lisbon and Chronicle 21, Legendary Odyssean Lisbon), while Teucer arrived in Lusitania and Galicia, where he founded Pontevedra (see Chronicle 20, Teucer-Teucrus of the Troad and Salamis), having previously passed from Mastia (or Massia, the later Carthago Nova, today’s Cartagena in Murcia). Some include Aveiro among the cities supposedly founded by Greeks in Lusitania. That’s why, they add, the women there are so beautiful!

Silius distinguishes the Aetolians from the Grovii (or Gravii in Latin), who lived in the coastal northern Lusitania, spreading also into Galicia.⁽⁴⁾ However, Pliny states “Helleni, Gravii, Castellum Tyde, graecorum sobolis omnia” (Hellenes, Grovii, the Castle of Tyde, they are all Greeks).

• ⁽⁴⁾ Pomponius Mela stated that all the tribes were Celtic, except for the Grovii, who worshipped gods different from the Celts. Pliny also rejected that the Grovii were Celts; he considered them to be of Greek stock. They cooperated with the local Gallaeci tribes in the aftermath of Viriathus’ death, in order to take revenge for his assassination. So, they attacked the Roman settlements in Lusitania, gaining momentum with the support of other tribes along the way, and reaching the south of the Peninsula, near Andalusia, thus endangering Roman rule in Hispania (Iberia).

Greeks in Iberia: Athena, Atlas, and Heracles with the golden apples of the Hesperides; marble relief, 5th century BCE

Teucer and his companions, says Strabo, founded some peoples in Galicia such as the Hellenes and Amphilochians. Something similar happened in Cantabria with certain Spartans. Relevant information is given by Pompeius Trogus, who translated into Latin the stories of the world from Hellenic literature. Justin, who compended Trogus’ work, points out that the Galicians claim they are of Greek descent (Gallaeci graecam sibi originem asserunt). This may be explained by the origin of the Celts who, according to Herodotus, might have come from Thrace, speaking perhaps also Hellenic (see Chronicle 20, Thracian and Celtic Coincidences).

Isidore of Seville (Híspalis), citing Latin writers, stated that, due to their Hellenic origin, “the Galicians are endowed with great ingenuity”. While Jerome couldn’t agree more: “… almost all islands, rivers, lands of the entire orb neighbouring the sea, are occupied by Greek inhabitants, who, as we have already said, owned all the maritime places from the Amanus [Nur] and Taurus Mountains [Asia Minor] to the British Ocean.”

According to Strabo, all the Northern highlanders in general – Galicians, Astures, Cantabrians, Basques – made hecatombs ritu graeco and married more graeco. In Cantabria, one could also meet Messenians and even Trojans, except for the Spartans, who expanded as far as the Douro’s mouth, leading a Laconic life.

Homer’s Odyssey is unique, but the Trojan War’s Odysseys were too many, from both belligerents, eventually enriching the Western Mediterranean – mainly Italy and Iberia – with “new blood”.

Celts in Europe

● When scholars like Stanislawski “forget” the Mycenaeans (not to mention the Minoans), they end up… uttering bubbles, such as: “Greek colonization to the West was very late, especially if we compare it with the Phoenician.” In fact, the Phoenicians were last in line, and their western colonization came even later. Let’s move now to Stanislawski’s text, Contacts Between the Ancient Civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean and Iberia:

CONTACTS BETWEEN THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
OF THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN AND IBERIA

Celts lived mainly in Galicia; Celtiberians in Portugal
and half of Spain; Iberians in the other half (Andalusia
to Catalonia); Basques in NE Spain (and SW France).

A WESTWARD MOVEMENT

“THE EARLIEST PASSAGE of Phoenician ships through the Straits of Gibraltar was probably made during the general period of time when the Central European farmers and pastoralists were first entering the Cantabrian region. These events preceded the 1st millennium BC. Later, Greek exploration and trade grew, following the example given by Phoenicia, perhaps as early as the 9th century and certainly by the end of the 7th century BC. Such contacts can be equated in time with the acceleration of the East-West movement of peoples and cultures which took place in the North with the advent of the Celts, who may have appeared in Iberia as early as 900 BC, and the main force of which was felt by the 6th century. Between the 6th and the 3rd centuries BC, while the lands of the western Mediterranean were developing under the influence of active and aggressive Greeks and Carthaginians [Punics], northern Iberia was changing under the influence of Celts of later arrival from beyond the Pyrenees. However, there was a difference between the early contacts along the Mediterranean coasts and those of the Central Europeans with northern Iberia. It was not opportunity for settlement that drew men along the southern coasts, but trade… It was the attraction of metals that drew the early Greeks beyond the Straits of Gibraltar and along the western coasts of Spain.”

CONTACTS WITH THE WEST COAST OF IBERIA

Celtic art in Spain

“It is possible that the early merchant wayfarers sailed up the west coast to trade directly with Galicia. But if they did, the coast of present Portugal represented a gap in their interest, for there is almost no record of them there.⁽⁵⁾ It would seem that Portugal was then, as through so many periods of time before and after, apart from the main stream of events. It possessed no great source of silver such as the mines of Andalusia, nor of copper or tin (with slight exceptions in both cases).⁽⁶⁾ With her metals, Spain was a magnet for the early traders, whereas Portugal attracted casual traders at most”…

• ⁽⁵⁾ There are slight exceptions; e.g., there is the Egyptian scarab of the 7th century BC that was found in a pre-Celtic level at Alcácer do Sal. (D. Stanislawski)

• ⁽⁶⁾ There is no record e.g. of Carthaginian exploitation of the copper of the Alentejo, which Romans later mined at Aljustrel. As all of southern Portugal is poor in tin, silver, and gold, there was little there to distract them from their preoccupation with such places as Andalusia and Murcia. (D.S.)

HOMOGENEITY OF THE IBERIAN MEDITERRANEAN REGION

“At the time of their first contacts with the west, the earliest Phoenicians and Greeks encountered a culture area with fundamentally similar characteristics throughout. It extended along the Mediterranean coasts, slopes, and adjacent interior valleys, from the Pyrenees to the Guadiana River… With their usual perspicacity, the Greeks recognized this area as being essentially homogeneous and sharply different in culture from the Celtic territories of the interior and of the north and west peripheries”…

EARLY POLITICAL GROUPS AND CONFUSION OF NAMES

Winged griffin of Tartessos (700-575 BCE)

“Indisputably, one of the important Iberian groups was that of the Tartessians, wealthy farmers and traders in metals. It was their knowledge of the sources of metals that first brought them in touch with the Phoenicians and Greeks. They knew the coasts to the west and northwest of their home, for the tin and gold that they traded came from Galicia. They were also able to furnish silver, copper, and lead, which came to them from the Guadalquivir River basin. It appears that tin was the product of greatest importance at the time. The early centuries of the pre-Christian millennium were times of great opulence along the coast of Galicia. That this wealth was due to tin may be inferred from the fact that the Greeks used the term Cassiterides to identify the area. However, the question as to the ultimate source of tin is moot. In spite of the lack of archaeological evidence it seems likely that, in the earliest years of trading, it came from alluvial deposits along the river banks of Galicia. There is a possibility, however, that Bronze Age connections with French Brittany and with the British Isles had continued and that the Galicians were merely purveyors of tin from those places. This basic necessity of bronze-users was scarce in the other parts of the Phoenician and Greek world. There was no tin in all of North Africa, Asia Minor, Caucasia, Cyprus, mainland Greece, and the Greek islands. The mines of Tuscany were small. It is no wonder that both Galicia and the Tartessians were prosperous and that the Phoenicians and Greeks were attracted to the area.”

“Tin was the product of greater importance. This basic necessity of bronze-users was scarce in the Phoenician and Greek world.” (Dan Stanislawski)

According to Pomponius Mela (1st century CE),
the Makárōn nēsoe (Fortunate Isles) are the Canaries; the Hesperides are at Cape Verde;
and the Cassiterides are the Azores

● “The Cassiterides are ten in number, and lie near each other in the ocean toward the north from the haven of the Artabri [A Coruña, Galicia].⁽⁷⁾ One of them is desert, but the others are inhabited… Of the metals, they have tin and lead, which, with skins, they barter with the merchants for earthenware, salt, and brazen vessels. Anciently the Phoenicians alone, from Gades, engrossed this market, hiding the navigation from all others. When [other navigators] followed a certain [Phoenician] shipmaster, that they might discover the market, the jealous shipmaster willfully stranded his vessel on a shoal, misleading those who were tracking him, to the same destruction. Escaping from the shipwreck by means of a fragment of the ship, he was indemnified for his losses out of the public treasury.” (Strabo)

• ⁽⁷⁾ According to Strabo, the Artabri (or Arrotrebae) were an ancient Gallaecian Celtic tribe, living in the extreme NW of modern Galicia, about Cape Nerium (Cabo Prior), outskirts of the harbour city of Ferrol. In Magnus Portus Artabrorum during Roman times (1st century BCE, even before), they traded in metals (like silver, gold, tin and iron), or even wild horses. The port was located on a turbulent, unpredictable sea, in the bay of Ferrol, and the rias of Ferrol, Betanzos and Coruña, with the Tower (lighthouse) of Heracles. Ptolemy refers to the Galaeci Lucenses and their capital town, Lucus Augusti (now Lugo).

● “The islands called Cassiterides, situated in the open sea approximately in the latitude of Britain, lie opposite to, and north of, the Artabrians… They that inhabit the British promontory of Belerium,⁽⁸⁾ by reason of their converse with the merchants, are more civilized and courteous to strangers than the rest. These are the people that make the tin… They beat it into four-square pieces the size of dice, and cart it to a British island, near at hand, called Ictis…⁽⁹⁾ For at low tide, all being dry between them and the island, they convey over in carts an abundance of tin in the mean time. But there is one thing peculiar to those islands, which lie between Britain and Europe; for at full sea they appear to be islands, but at low water for a long way they look like so many peninsulas… Hence the merchants transport the tin they buy of the inhabitants to France, and for thirty days’ journey they carry it in packs on horses’ backs through France to the mouth of the river Rhône.” (Diodorus Siculus)

The Cassiterides and Bolerium (depicted
here as an islet) south of Britain

• ⁽⁸⁾ Belerium, or Bolerium, now Land’s End: a headland on the western tip of Cornwall, the most westerly point of England. Diodorus’ text is very often connected with St. Michael’s Mount.

• ⁽⁹⁾ Ictis, or Iktin: an island described by Diodorus as a tin trading centre, somewhere off the coast of southern England, with its exact location unknown; candidates include St. Michael’s Mount, or Looe Island, off the Cornish coast, also known as St. Michael’s Island, or St. George’s Island.

● “There are two kinds of lead, the white (plumbum album) and the black (plumbum nigrum). The white is the most valuable; it was called by the Greeks cassíteros; and there is a fabulous story of their going in quest of it to the islands of the Atlantic, and of its being brought in barks made of osiers, and covered with hides. It is now known that it is the production of Lusitania and Gallaecia… White lead was held in esteem in the days even of the Trojan War – a fact attested by Homer, who called it ‘cassíteros’… It is extracted with great labour in Hispania [Iberia] and throughout all the Gallic provinces, but in Britannia it is found in the upper stratum of the earth in such abundance, that a law has been spontaneously made prohibiting anyone from working more than a certain quantity of it.” (Pliny)

Hellenic ship, mocaic (ca 1st century BCE-CE)

GREEK EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT

“The earliest Greek ventures may perhaps be dated as of the 9th or the 8th century BC. Possibly Rhodian and Chalcidian sailors were in the western Mediterranean at this time… The line of Ionian names stretching along the islands and coasts of the western Mediterranean and to the Atlantic coast of Portugal – the names with the –ussa termination – can probably be ascribed to this early period. These names are important in dating the arrival of the Greeks in western waters. They mark the island route of the early Greek navigators. Starting from Syrakoussai [Syracusae] in eastern Sicily, they may be followed through Ichnussa (Sardinia), Melussa (Menorca), Rornyussa (Mallorca) and Pityussa (Ibiza). The latter three, even now, are identified on maps as the Balearics or Pityusas. The -ussa names extend westward to the Straits of Gibraltar and up the Atlantic coast of Portugal to Ophiussa, in the region of Lisbon, and the general area of Portugal plus Galicia may have been vaguely termed Ophiussa.”

The “Balearides” (Gymnesian) and the “Pityusae” Isles on an old map

● The Balearics comprise two island groups: the Gymnesians (Mallorca and Minorca) and the Pityuses (Eivissa or Ibiza and Formentera). The term “Balearic” derives from the Grecian Βαλλιαρεῖς or Βαλεαρεῖς (from βάλλω, meaning “to launch”), referring to the islanders who were skilled slingers and served as mercenaries for the Hellenes, Punics, and Romans. However, Strabo regarded the word as of Phoenician origin, as similar to lightly armoured soldiers the Hellenes called γυμνήτας, hence Gymnesiae (from γυμνός, meaning naked). This does not mean they fought naked, but that they used much lighter armament than the hoplites. Anyhow, according to Lycophron’s poem Alexandra, the toponym refers to shipwrecked Boeotians who were cast nude on the islands (a story obviously invented); or to the islanders themselves who were often nude (because of the year-round benevolent climate). In the Gymnesian Isles there are megalithic stone monuments (naveta, taula and talaiot) which speak of a very early prehistoric human activity. They are similar, but not necessarily related, to the nuraghe of Sardinia and torri of Corsica. One of the earliest cultures on Minorca was influenced by other Mediterranean civilizations, including the Minoan. Those islanders e.g. may have imitated those inverted plastered timber columns found at Knossos (such evidence is probably not “convincing” enough for Stanislawski). There is also a tradition that the Balearics were colonized by Rhodes after the Trojan War. The Pityusic Islands (from Grecian πιτύα, pine tree) are sometimes informally called in English as the Pine Islands, which is identical to the Hellenic name Πιτυοῦσαι, i.e. “pine-covered islands”. In antiquity they were listed in Claudius Ptolemy’s Geography under the names Ophiussis and Ebyssus, which had a town of the same name. It is the port Ibossim founded by Phoenicians in 654 BCE, later known to Romans as Ebusus, hence Eivissa (in Catalan) or Ibiza (in Castilian). The population of the two largest islands (Gymnesians) is stated by Diodorus at 30,000.

Herodotus, by Jean-Guillaume Moitte (1806)

THE PHOCAEAN GREEKS

“Herodotus said that it was Greeks from the city of Phocaea in Asia Minor who were first to navigate in the western Mediterranean waters. It may seem temerous to question the facts of the father of history, but Antonio García (A. G. y Bellido, Hispania Graeca [Hellenic Iberia]) does so convincingly. The Phocaeans, says he, arrived late upon the scene, profiting by earlier maritime contacts. Nor does he accept the statement that the important voyage of Colaeus, the Samian, was a voyage of discovery of Tartessos for the Greeks. This widely heralded 7th century journey was, to him, merely one – although perhaps the most profitable and spectacular up to that time – of many such voyages that had been made by Rhodians, Chalcidians, Samians, and others.⁽¹⁰⁾

• ⁽¹⁰⁾ Another point of view is expressed by H. R. W. Smith in his review of García’s Hispania Graeca. Smith does not deny the thesis of García but says that he can find no reason to believe that the Phocaeans reached Tartessos prior to the time of Arganthonios, the Tartessian king friendly to the Greeks, or before the voyage of Colaeus. (D.S.)

A Satyr on pottery found at Alalia

“Whatever the dating may be – and the archaeological inquiry has far to go – the Phocaeans certainly became the most active and effective Greeks in the area. Their colonization had energy and breadth and was the only one in the western Mediterranean with lasting results… There is no specific evidence that this activity was connected with the decay of Tyre, but there is such a coincidence in time. Tyrian decline had begun by the end of the 8th century BC and was notable during the following century. This was the time of the voyage of Colaeus, the Samian (650 BC), the founding of the Phocaean colony of Massalia, present Marseille (600 BC, or approximately then), and the founding of Alalia in Corsica (640 BC, or approximately 40 years prior to Massalia). Some time before the end of the century, Mainake [Maenaca], the most westerly of Phocaean colonies, was founded near Málaga.⁽¹¹⁾

• ⁽¹¹⁾ Within 20 miles to the east, says García; Smith suggests that it might even be at approximately the outskirts of present Málaga. (D.S.)

● Some dates are different here. The difference in Colaeus’ voyage is not important (650, not c. 640 BCE); but the dating of the founding of Alalia is almost one century earlier (650 instead of 566 BCE). Was it initially a temporary seasonal settlement?

Following the Mediterranean island route, the
Phocaeans arrived from Asia Minor to Iberia.

“This century was one of intimacy between Phocaeans and Tartessians. The reign of Arganthonios of Tartessos began in the 7th century BC. The ancient sources spoke of his 80-year reign but probably, in typical Greek fashion, they dramatized a dynasty or a period by creating a mythical longevity for a single ruler. Whether this represented one ruler or several does not alter the fact that there was frequent and close contact between Tartessos and Phocaea. This was the period of the Phocaean maritime dominance during which the Tartessian king lent money to the Phocaeans to build their fortifications against the threat of the Persians.”

● Arganthonios is a name apparently based on the Indo-European word for silver, hence money. Tartessos was very rich in silver. Similar names appear in inscriptions of the Roman period and on silver coinage in Gaul. Arganthonios, the “Silver Man” (c. 670–550 BCE), ruled Tartessos for 80 years (c. 630–550) and lived to be 120 years old. The idea of great age and length of reign may result from a succession of kings using the same name or title. Nevertheless, one could retort he died… quite young, if we take under consideration that, as the Bible says, “all the days of Methuselah were nine hundred sixty and nine [969!] years”: he supposedly lived almost one thousand years and became a symbol of longevity…

The Tower of Babel, by Pieter Bruegel the Elder

● The weird thing is that no one dares to say: fairy tales! Even more funny is that so many well-intentioned (and a few… bad-intentioned) people try hard to interpret the uninterpretable, although it is well-known that “you better stay away from the Bible’s dates”! It’s weird, so let’s have fun: “such mistakes are made by copyists or translators; are mistaken attempts to correct mistakes; deliberate extensions of the patriarchs’ ages by the ‘Seventy’ [Jews who translated the Old Testament into Greek], multiplying by 5 or 10, for the patriarchs to ‘fit’ with the Flood ‘myth’; confusion between ‘months’ and ‘years’; or between solar and lunar years; or between Sumerian and new numbers; the names do not refer to individuals, but to ‘dynasties’,” as in the case of Arganthonios. We also have fundamentalist interpretations: “a water vapour canopy protected the earth from radiation before the Flood; early humans had a better diet; or the more we sin, the less we live: the humans were originally to have everlasting life, but sin was introduced into the world by Adam and Eve, its influence became greater with each generation, and God progressively shortened human life, particularly after the Flood”… Amen!

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GREEKS AND PUNIC
PEOPLES IN THEIR RELATIONS WITH IBERIA

The island and bay of Gadir: the Phoenicians’
springboard for attacks against Tartessos

“The period of the decline of Tyre was not only important for the Ionian Greeks, but also for the Tyrian colony of Carthage. During the time of Phocaean colonization, Carthage too was expanding. As early as 653 BC, it had established the colony on Ibiza of the Balearics, which lay athwart the Greek island route to the west. After 573 BC, when Tyre fell to the Babylonians, Carthage showed increasing independence. Competition for western metals was growing between the two great rivals, Carthage and Greece. It is reasonable to assume that the friendship of Arganthonios (or that of his dynasty), through almost a century of time, was more than mere affection and amiability. It probably represented a form of alliance in which the Tartessians aided the Phocaeans in their struggle against the threat to their mother city. In return, Greeks supported the Westerners against the growing aggressiveness of Carthage and the Punic colony of Gadir, which threatened the area of Tartessos. Almost from the time of their founding of Gadir the Phoenicians showed their expansionist tendencies. It was not long before they were using the island as a base of attack against the mainland and the Tartessians.

“Graeco-Iberian friendship: an alliance against Carthage and Gadir’s aggressiveness. From the beginning the Phoenicians used the island as a base of attack against the Tartessians… Graeco-Iberian contacts: history of amity; the Iberian hospitality toward Greeks was proverbial… Friendship and mutual support against the common enemy served both.” (Dan Stanislawski)

Dionysus (the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking
and wine), by Exekias (cylix, c. 530 BCE)

“The Greeks were usually neither pacific nor friendly neighbors when the prospect of gain was apparent. In this they differed little from the Phoenicians. However, in their relations with the Tartessians they had no desire, it would seem, for control of land or people, but merely wanted to trade their products, especially olive oil and wine,⁽¹²⁾ for Tartessian metals. In fact, the history of Greek contacts with Iberians is one of amity, and the hospitality of the Iberians toward Greeks was proverbial. The purposes of both peoples were served by friendly intercourse and mutual support against the common enemy, especially after the increased importance and the expanded ambition of Carthage. A major clash for complete dominance of the area was inevitable. This was speeded by events in the eastern Mediterranean area”…

• ⁽¹²⁾ Pierson Dixon, The Iberians of Spain, and Rhys Carpenter, The Greeks in Spain, state that the olive tree and the vine were introduced into Spain by the Greeks. Olive oil was exported from Greek Akragas [Agrigento] to Carthage in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. No doubt the Greeks traded in wine with Iberia. Wine made from grapes is very old in the countries of the eastern Mediterranean, and the Phoenicians were famous merchants of wine… (D.S.)

Artemis, Phocaea’s patron goddess; Massaliote “heavy” silver drachma (ca 390-220 BCE)

THE ALALIA COLONY AND ITS EFFECTS

DAN STANISLAWSKI, IN THIS PART of his story, turns his attention to the historic developments in Asia Minor: in 546 BCE, Cyrus conquered Lydia and Ionia, causing “a mass migration of perhaps half of the population of Phocaea to their Corsican colony of Alalia… All the men in this city of probably 5,000 to 7,000 people had gone. This population figure suggests the large number of available vessels, and points to the commercial importance of the city at that time”. The Battle of Alalia took place “sometime between 540 and 535 BC”, with its disastrous impact on the Hellenes and, even more, on the Tartessians.

“Carthage may then have sealed the Straits of Gibraltar, as Carpenter suggests. More likely, the Straits had been largely sealed for a long time, but after the battle the land route between Mainake and Tartessos was also blocked. Mainake itself was destroyed by the Carthaginians toward the end of the century, to end its traffic and its competition with the Carthaginian settlement in the location of present Málaga”…

Phocaean electrum coin with playing seals

ECONOMIC CHANGES IN THE WEST

“As Carthage had inherited the western empire of Tyre, so did Massalia fall heir to that of her mother city, Phocaea. Greek trade became centered here, with the end of Phocaean maritime enterprise in the West of the Mediterranean. Trade through France to Brittany and beyond had been undoubtedly important to the Massaliotes previous to this time, but the record had been obscured by the greater drama of the struggle on the Mediterranean. During the last half of the 6th century BC, during which time Carthaginians grasped complete power in the West, the prosperity of Galicia – presumably based upon tin – declined. This decline may have been due to the change from the sea route, by way of the Straits, to that from Massalia, via the French rivers, to the northwest and ultimately to Britain”…

“Galicia’s decline due to the change from the sea route, via the Straits, to that from Massalia, via the French rivers, and ultimately to Britain.” (Stanislawski)

Stanislawski offers four possible explanations for the Galician decline; probably the second one is the most important:

Armor of a Punic officer

“More likely, the Galicians had for some time been not producers, but purveyors, of tin from French Armorica or the British Isles. If this were true, the direct land route from Massalia would have skirted the Carthaginian barrier and eliminated Galician middlemen… At approximately the same period of time there was an increased interest in silver… by the avidity with which the Greeks of Asia Minor sought it for coinage… Perhaps the richest of ancient silver mines was that of Mastia (or Massia), a region second only to Tartessos in commercial importance. The ancient prosperity of the region and of its most important city, also named Mastia (or Massia), the later Cartago Nova, and probably the site of the present Cartagena, was based upon silver mining through several centuries. Great amounts were mined under the direction of Hannibal in the 3rd century BC, and it was still a large operation at the time of Polybius in the succeeding century.”

CARTHAGINIAN DOMINATION OF THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN

Bronze Age gold helmet found in Leiro, Galicia

After the battle of Alalia, “Greek commercial activity in Iberia was ended and Carthage was less inhibited in the spread of its control. Tartessos, which had feared the Carthaginians and had allied itself with the Greeks, was left without support and was destroyed.⁽¹³⁾ In the following century, probably 20,000 Iberian mercenaries were fighting in Sicily for the Carthaginians… Celts were also serving as mercenaries in the Carthaginian forces.

• ⁽¹³⁾ If there was no city of that name, it is not important to the larger fact that the area as a whole was put under the control of the Carthaginians of Gadir (Carpenter, The Greeks in Spain). (D.S.)

Dido (or Elissa, founder of Carthage), attributed to Christophe Cochet

“There was an increasing reliance upon mercenaries from the peninsula, not only from the fringes but from deep within the interior as well. In the late 3rd century BC, Hannibal’s army included Celtiberians from the northern interior, Galicians from the extreme northwest, Lusitanians from Middle Portugal, Vettones from the middle Tagus drainage – and these do not complete the list. Such troops, however, were something other than pure mercenaries; many had been forcibly impressed into service… During earlier centuries no general antagonism in Iberia seems to have been engendered by the Carthaginians. Locally there may have been antagonism, such as probably existed between the Carthaginians and the Tartessians, but for the tribes of the interior the Carthaginians may have had a friendly appeal. They offered an opportunity to fight with pay. It was later, when the Carthaginians had expanded their power and increased their need for troops that their tactics changed with regard to these tribes of the interior, which had long served as a source of manpower. When Hannibal, in desperate need for troops and under economic pressure, forcibly impressed some of them into his armies, the others reacted in bitter opposition. The tribes of the interior were a bellicose lot. An opportunity to fight for pay was not distasteful to them but a demand that they submit to enslavement was another matter. According to Strabo they resisted Hannibal as they later did the Romans for somewhat the same reasons.

“Nevertheless, tens of thousands of mercenaries were introduced to new lands and cultures of the middle and eastern Mediterranean. Since this process had been going on from as early as the 6th century BC and many men had returned to the peninsula, the effect upon attitudes of the peoples of the Meseta [‘Plateau’, in the heart of Iberia] and even some of the remote western coasts may have been considerable.”

The harbour of Carthage

● In relation with her mercenaries, Carthage had already had a war in her… liabilities: the Mercenary or Libyan War (240-237 BCE), immediately after the First Punic War. It was a rebellion of her mercenaries, with Libyan support, due to her inability to pay them, since she had to pay first the huge war indemnities to Rome. She confronted a “Foreign Legion”, consisted of Iberians and Celt-Iberians, Celts, Baleares, Greeks and others. Bilateral negotiations were fruitless due to lack of confidence, but also to the multilingualism of the mercenaries, making it impossible to find a compromise. Very soon, hostilities broke out and the mercenaries captured Tunis. Threatened directly, Carthage had no choice but to capitulate to the demands of the mercenaries. The latter, with their strengthened bargaining position, started asking more and more, as e.g. that the Libyans, who were neither mercenaries (they were recruited), nor citizens of Carthage, should be paid, together with the Numidians, or the escaped slaves who were fighting on their side. Once again the Punics had no choice but to agree…

Salammbô, by Alfons Mucha (1896), based on Gustave Flaubert’s same-titled historical novel (1862) that was in turn based on Polybius. The heroine is Hamilcar’s daughter and priestess loved passionately by Mathos…

The conflict would have ended there if two of the mercenary commanders, Spendius, a Campanian slave, and Mathos, a Libyan Berber, had not persuaded the Libyans of the army that Carthage would take revenge for their part in the revolt as soon as the foreign mercenaries were paid and sent home. They were joined by many towns and villages of Libya, as the people there were fed up with the Punic yoke, and finally, by all the mercenaries. What had started as a simple “labour dispute”, exploded into a full-scale revolt threatening an empire… Outmatched in every aspect – men, money, and supplies – and unprepared, Carthage “staggered” as long as Hanno the “Great” was in charge. The generalship was eventually given to Hamilcar Barca, Hannibal’s father, who managed to defeat, in 237 BCE, those who he once commanded in Sicily, fighting against the Romans. He cleverly used the “psychological war”, won over a part of his opponents, and annihilated the rest in the decisive “Battle of the Saw” – that was not even a battle: he blockaded the mercenaries in a steep ravine, until they starved to death. The barbarities and atrocities were far too many in this “relentless”, “truceless war”, according to Polybius, with no rules of conduct – the “most impious war in history”. Mutilations and crucifixions on both sides shocked everyone then.

Silver coin of Hamilcar Barca

A smaller mercenary revolt in Sardinia was put down with Roman help. Rome, in this war, was an ally of Carthage, so she could continue paying the indemnities! Besides, the Romans would soon occupy both Sardinia and Corsica. Losing the two islands, the Punics had only Iberia to “milk” in order to get back on track. If Thucydides were alive, he would have much to write about… We can act accordingly; drawing parallels between the Carthage-and-her-mercenaries relation and that of the USA with their own mercenaries (Osama, Taliban, the Islamic State, etc.). Or about Carthage’s racist disadvantage, as Punic citizenship was an exclusive privilege; so, they refused to give political rights e.g. to the Libyans, and consequently were obliged to rely more and more on mercenaries. That was Rome’s advantage in the second Punic War, when Hannibal, despite his victories in Italy, was unable to break the ties of Rome with her allies. Or even about how many “Great” men, like Hanno, the “pacifist” – because of his personal interests, i.e. money – are finally so small. The only ones from all those I mention in these Chronicles, who really deserve this epithet, must be Alexander and Cyrus.

Centaur: bronze figurine from Campo de Caravaca (Murcia), probably made in Greece (6th century BCE)

In conclusion…

DAN STANISLAWSKI, I REMIND YOU, was the one who had rejected the possibility of a Minoan presence in Iberia; the one who had “forgotten” the Mycenaeans, attributing the role of the transporters of the Egyptian archaeological finds in Spain to the Phoenicians – and, indeed, during a time of Mycenaean domination in the Mediterranean (1400-1200 BCE); he was the one, in addition, who had “ignored” the Hellenic emporia in Egypt, mainly Naucratis; the one I accused he was “spectacled”, wearing “Phoenician myopic glasses”!

For all the above we can appreciate even more his own personal “view” of Iberia, since it’s anything but biased in favour of the Greeks. All the more so, when we realize that his story is almost identical with the historical panorama in our three “Iberian” Chronicles (21, 22, 25): Ὅπερ ἔδει δεῖξαι, as Euclid would say, or quod erat demonstrandum (Q.E.D), or “what had to be demonstrated”. There is just one last Chronicle left: we shall be dropping anchor at emporia or touring palaces in the Near East, to come full circle back to our starting point, in a voyage full of surprises, as on the way we’ll be meeting itinerant artisans, artists, and masters, “members of the Architects’ and Painters’ Guilds”, whose writing, nevertheless, in Linear A, would puzzle the renowned archaeologist Leonard Woolley…

• >> Chronicle 27. AN ARCHAEOLOGIST’S WATERLOO
• << Chronicle 25. “CARTHAGO DELENDA EST!”

Next Chronicle 27. AN ARCHAEOLOGIST’S WATERLOO ● Emporia in Egypt and the Levant ● Leonard Woolley’s Waterloo ● Itinerant Minoan Artists ● Creto-Egyptian Ties ● Differences Between Minoan
and Pharaonic Society and Art

Left: a clay tablet from Knossos; the Linear A script that puzzled Leonard Woolley.
Right: an inscription in the Greek alphabet by Massaliotes in Catalonia:
“Hail, Thespis Massaliote, son of Aristoteles”.

Chronicle 20. THE ENIGMATIC SEA PEOPLES

Chronicle 20. THE ENIGMATIC SEA PEOPLES

/ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΑ/ Χρονικό 20. ΟΙ ΑΙΝΙΓΜΑΤΙΚΟΙ ΛΑΟΙ ΤΗΣ ΘΑΛΑΣΣΑΣ

● Bronze Age Collapse Due to Famine ● Trojan War and Anatolian
Sea Peoples ● Merneptah Stele and Exodus ● Hittites and Luwians

Michales Loukovikas

The “Great Green” Mediterranean, the “Sea of Hellenes”

BEFORE WE VOYAGE WEST, we need to sail off onto the “Great Green” of the “Sea of Hellenes” (Egyptian terms referring to the Mediterranean), in search of the Sea Peoples, meeting more migrant-refugee bands on the way. Voyaging in space and time, in history, legend or myth, let us go back to the explosive finale of the 17th century BCE, i.e. the “big bang” of the Minoan volcanic eruption on Thera, as it occurred very close to the period that the Sea Peoples initially appeared in Egypt. If we take into account the wrecking of the Minoan navy policing the seas, we can presume that these peoples were then nothing but pirates, and we also realize how interdependent the great powers were in the ancient world, as well.

Ancient ship, Egyptian papyrus painting

Later the Egyptians started identifying various bands of Sea Peoples in their own style, and one of the first they mentioned were the Sherden, or Shardana, a large group of pirates. They disrupted trade in the late 13th century and contributed greatly to the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization. Nonetheless, they are not mentioned in either Hellenic or Hittite legends or documents, suggesting that they did not originate from either sphere of influence. Many scholars relate the Shardana to Sardinia due to the similarity between the two words. Based on the same principle, the archaeologist Margaret Guido proposed that the Shardana might have ultimately derived from Sardis, and the Sardinian plain nearby, in Lydia, and perhaps migrated later to Sardinia. It seems that many people, and not only the Trojans that would become Romans, left Anatolia and the Aegean for the Italian peninsula and its islands due to the Bronze Age collapse rather than before. There is evidence that gives credit to Virgil’s Aeneid – but without excluding the possibility of earlier migrations. Recent genetic studies indicate that the populations not only of people, but even of cattle, in several Italian regions, especially in Tuscany, are more related to Asia Minor, and mainly in the northwest, than to anywhere else.

A famous passage from Herodotus, quoted by scholars quite often, portrays the migration and drifting of Lydians in the Mediterranean because of famine:

Etruscans dancing, painting on a tomb

“Their king divided the people into two groups, so that the one should remain and the other leave the country. His son, Tyrrhenus, was to be the head of those who departed. They went down to Smyrna and built themselves ships. After sailing past many countries they came to the Umbri, where they founded cities and called themselves Tyrrhenians.”

We can’t but remember that Anatolia faced the same acute problem of famine in the time of the collapse and, as a result, the Sea Peoples, then a coalition of seagoing migrants, closed ranks seeking relief from scarcity. Drought could have easily precipitated socio-economic problems and wars. As regards the story told by Herodotus and its link to the Sea Peoples, some scholars contend that those people called Teresh by the Egyptians were none others than the Tyrrhenians, or Tyrsenians, who are often identified with the Tusci (hence Tuscany), the Latin exonym for the Etruscans, or Ras(en)na, as they called themselves. The Tyrsenian linguistic family, together with Etruscan, includes the Lemnian language, spoken on the Aegean island of Lemnos to the 6th century BCE. Another Aegean tongue possibly related to the Etruscan was the Minoan Cretan. A third Aegean island close to Asia Minor mentioned as their possible origin by Thucydides is that of Lesbos. The Romans, as Virgil’s readers, identified the Teresh with the Trojans. There are clues to support this view. Several writers, e.g. Andrea Salimbeti in The Greek Age of Bronze: Sea Peoples, comment that a Trojan connection in the case of the Teresh (or Tursha) should be at first taken under consideration:

The double-headed eagle, the Byzantine symbol of Empire, was used before by Mycenaeans and Hittites, e.g. this relief at Alaca Höyük (1400 BCE)

“Troy appears in a Hittite record as Taruisa. It is a reasonable assumption that the people of Taruisa called themselves by some name close to this; stripped of vowels so that it can be compared to the Egyptian spelling”.

The Troad (or Troas) was outside the territory but within the sphere of influence of Hatti. Nevertheless, another Hittite record points to a different location, for it contains a list of cities, among them Tarsa, most likely Tarsus. These toponyms and corresponding ethnicities would be written down in Egyptian hieroglyphs, or in any cuneiform script, as “T-r-s” or “T-r-sh” – i.e. without vowels.⁽¹⁾

• ⁽¹⁾ A very good example of how important the Greek innovation with the vowels in the alphabet has been. If the Egyptian script had vowels, as well, the enigma of the Sea Peoples might have long since been solved!

“The Sea Peoples may well have been Troy and its confederated
allies, and the literary tradition of the Trojan War may well reflect
the Greek effort to counter those raids.” (Eberhard Zangger)

Anatolian amalgam: the most important regions and peoples

Anatolian connections have been suggested for other Sea Peoples, too, such as the Lukka (Lycians). Most striking is that they mostly seem to have descended from the Troad. Thus the Swiss geoarchaeologist,⁽²⁾ Eberhard Zangger, thinks that “the Sea Peoples may well have been Troy and its confederated allies, and the literary tradition of the Trojan War may well reflect the Greek effort to counter those raids.” This is what the Iliad seems to reflect.⁽³⁾

• ⁽²⁾ Geoarchaeology uses techniques and subject matter of geography, geology, and other Earth sciences, to examine topics which inform archaeological knowledge. Geoarchaeologists study the natural processes that affect archaeological sites, such as geomorphology, as well as soil and sediments, to contribute to archaeological studies.

• ⁽³⁾ According to this scenario, the Trojan War was “just” and defensive on the part of the Greeks, not intended for conquest and destruction of the city controlling the passage to the Black Sea.

Ilium/Troy: the wider area and, below on the right, the modern coastline in red and, therefore,
the floodplain that interested Zangger – on the strategic straits and close to the border area.

Eberhard Zangger

Eberhard Zangger’s Anatolian Hypothesis

● In his Anatolian hypothesis, Eberhard Zangger caused a sensation because of his controversial identification of Troy as Atlantis. Zangger’s point of view is that Plato used an Egyptian version of the story about Troy for his famous report on Atlantis. He based his argument on comparisons between the Mycenaean culture and Plato’s account of the Hellenic civilization facing Atlantis, as well as parallels between the recollections of the Trojan War and the one supposedly fought between Greeks and Atlanteans (a Titanomachy variation). He interpreted the legend of the Trojan War to be the memory of the momentous chaos leading to the Bronze Age collapse, and arrived at the conclusion that Troy must have been much bigger than scholars had presumed, with artificial harbours inside the modern floodplain. In order to prove it, he prepared a helicopter-based geophysical exploration of the plain to locate layers of settlement and artificial port basins, using ground-penetrating techniques. Having granted an “exclusive excavation license” for Troy to Manfred Korfmann, a German archaeologist, the Turkish government rejected Zangger’s request. Disappointed, the latter summed up his theory giving a lecture in the Heidelberg Academy of Science. In my view, his ambitious project was undermined not by Korfmann’s… exclusive rights to excavate for Troy (! – Zangger’s plan did not entail any real excavations) but rather by Turkey’s unwillingness to authorize any disclosure of sensitive military data in an area close to the border for the sake of science.

The historicity of the Iliad

Trojan War scenes on pottery

Despite the attempts of several historians to discredit the historicity of the Iliad, the Trojan War is considered a historical event; in addition, it is a key to grasp the underlying causes of all these epoch-making developments. “For sure, the Sea Peoples’ movement was one of the largest and most important migrations in history that changed the face of the ancient world more than any other single event before the time of Alexander the Great”, remarks Andrea Salimbeti. This long, ravaging war, in combination with the widespread famine in the entire peninsula, created the explosive conditions leading to the collapse. Under the circumstances, many Trojans, allies or neighbours, became refugees, and some survived by their wits or swords. Archeological evidence leads to the conclusion that the Sea Peoples were not pirates anymore, nor raiders plundering and pillaging established cities, but instead a mass of people looking for a place to settle, in search of a home. This was obvious since their first invasion of Egypt under Libyan leadership, when they were accompanied by their families and belongings. The Libyan tribes also played a role in the first campaigns against Egypt. Herodotus and Hecataeus mentioned one of them centuries later. It was the Berber tribe of the Maxyes or Mazyes, the Mazaces to the Romans, or the Meshwesh to the Egyptians – who claimed to have Trojan blood in their veins…

A Peleset headdress, and a similar (?) Phaestos disc symbol (below on the right)

Pelasgians and Philistines (Peleset)

An important Sea People have been the Peleset, identified with the Philistines, or in a broad sense, the Palestinians:

“One of the theories”, says Salimbeti, “links them to the Pelasgians who were allies of Troy and one group of them lived in Thrace. Those Pelasgians would have migrated south, overrunning and fatally damaging Achaean Greek civilization. Shortly after, many would have gone farther south to Crete.”

There are also Biblical references to the Philistines as coming from a place called Caphtor, identified by several scholars with Crete:⁽⁴⁾

• ⁽⁴⁾ According to Wikipedia: “Caphtor is a locality mentioned in the Bible and related literature. The people of Caphtor are called Caphtorites (Caphtorim) and are named as a division of the ancient Egyptians. Traditional Hebrew sources place Caphtor in the region of Pelusium [in the Nile Delta]. Other sources [?] associate Caphtor with localities outside Egypt e.g. Cilicia, Cappadocia, Cyprus or Crete.” The least probable scenario is “hard truth” for some scholars… (See Chronicle 27, footnote 10).

The Nile Delta with Pelusium in the East, the Hellenic colony Naucratis in the West, and further on the location Alexandria was to be built. The ancient canal linking the Mediterranean and the Red Seas is also shown.

“This theory”, adds Salimbeti, “has been somewhat strengthened by the discovery in Crete of the Phaestos disc. One of the symbols shows the head of a man crowned with feathers – very similar to the feather-topped helmets of the Peleset depicted” at the Temple of Ramses III.⁽⁵⁾

• ⁽⁵⁾ Well, it was certainly unavoidable: “The similarity [of the Peleset helmet] with Maya and Aztec feather headdresses is truly amazing, given the distance that separated the Mesoamerican culture” from the Mediterranean… Galloping imagination somewhere in the Internet Sea, while far in the distant horizon the land of Atlantis is gradually emerging…

● Well, what about the language of the Philistines? Wikipedia informs us of “possible relations to Indo-European languages, even Mycenaean Greek, [which supposedly] support the independently-held [?!] theory that immigrant Philistines originated among ‘Sea Peoples’.” And what do we know about the Pelasgian language(s)? “In the absence of certain knowledge about the identity (or identities) of the Pelasgians, various theories have been proposed. Since Greek is classified as an Indo-European language, the major question of concern is whether Pelasgian was an Indo-European language”. For more information, we are forwarded to the Aegean language family, proposed by Giulio M. Facchetti, due to some alleged similarities between Etruscan, Lemnian, and some other languages of the area, such as Minoan Cretan, Eteocretan, Eteocypriot, and Philistine. These languages could constitute a pre-Indo-European phylum stretching from Canaan to the Alps. But this is not a view held in common; there are attempts to link Eteocretan and Eteocypriot with Semitic.

Pelasgian Cycladic civilization: on this “frying pan”’s design (2800 BCE), some imaginative people see a map of Atlantis!

Surely, all the above are nothing but hypotheses, as Facchetti himself admits. What counts is the idea the ancient Hellenes had about the Pelasgians, who had survived even in the classical period in several locations of mainland Greece, Crete and other Aegean islands. People identified as “Pelasgian” spoke a language or languages that the Hellenes described as “barbaric” – that is, they were incomprehensible to them. A tradition also survived that many parts of Greece had once been Pelasgian before being Hellenized. Hence, we can relish watching all scholarly theorizations crumbling and crashing down… (On the Pelasgians see Chronicle 15, footnote 7).

Another “Trojan” Sea People might have been the Weshesh. Again, the scarcity of information led… “necessarily” to speculation about possible links between their name and that of Ilion, as the city of Troy was also called by the Greeks – Wilusa (or Wilusiya) by the Hittites – after king Ilus (thence the Iliad). “The W of Weshesh”, notes Salimbeti, “is a modern invention for ease of pronunciation; the Egyptian records refer to Uashesh.” Some scholars associate this people with Assos, also in the Troad, or with Iassos in Caria, or with Issus (Issos) in Cilicia. Others have theorized that they became part of the Israelite confederacy as the tribe of Asher. Another people connected with the Hebrews were the Tjeker. Moving to Canaan, they captured the city-state of Dor and turned it into a large, well-fortified capital of their kingdom. Dor was violently destroyed in the mid-11th century BCE by the expanding Phoenicians, who were initially checked by the Philistines, and then by the Hebrews. King David (if he was something more than just a mythological figure) supposedly conquered Dor and the Tjeker were mentioned no more.

Teucer (Teucrus) of the Troad and Salamis

Achilles and Ajax playing a dice game: an amphora
by painter-potter Exekias, ca 540-530 BCE

A possible linguistic connection has been proposed between the Tjeker and the Tekrur, identified with the Teucri, a tribe described by some ancient sources as inhabiting northwest Anatolia to the south of Troy. Tradition offers basically two candidates for their homeland: Crete or Attica. Legend links all three places and goes even further, following two heroes with the same name: Teucer (Teucrus). According to Virgil, the older Teucer was from Crete but left the island with a third part of its inhabitants during a great famine (how many such stories…). They eventually settled near a river, named Scamander after his father. On the contrary, Dionysius of Halicarnassus claims Teucer had gone to the Troad from Attica. Scamander (or Xanthos) was a river-god, a son of Oceanus. According to Homer, he fought on the side of the Trojans after Achilles insulted him. He was the personification of the river that flowed by Troy. The Hellenes had set up their camp near its mouth, and their battles with the Trojans were fought on its plain. The land was initially called Teucria, after Teucer. When Dardanus arrived there, it was renamed as Dardania (thence Dardenelles), and later Troad (from king Tros). But these toponymic changes would not deter the Trojans to often call themselves Teucrians. Aeneas e.g. is described as “the great captain of the Teucrians”.

The Judgement of Paris (1904), by Enrique Simonet: Aphrodite, the winner in this ancient beauty pageant, stepping forward triumphantly naked, while Hera and Athena stay behind humiliated…

Teucer the younger, or “bastard”, was half-Trojan because his mother, Hesione, a concubine of king Telamon, was a princess of Ilion. His father had arrived from Aegina to Salamis, as he was sent away by his own father for he had accidentally killed his brother. Teucer also fought in the Trojan War, but on the side of the Hellenes, having his half-brother, Ajax, as a co-fighter, while his cousins, Hector and Paris, and his uncle Priam, were “enemies”. After all, war was a family affair – let alone for Teucer Jr. On his return to Salamis, however, his father accused him for not bringing Ajax’s body back home. He was in his turn disowned, exiled and set out to find a new home. With his departing words that Horace turned into a moving ode, he exhorted his companions to “despair in no way… tomorrow we shall set out upon the boundless sea”.⁽⁶⁾ This speech, related later to the theme of voyages of discovery, is also found in Dante’s Inferno and Tennyson’s Ulysses. Teucer eventually joined king Belus of Tyre in a Phoenician campaign against Cyprus, and when the island was seized, the king handed it over to Teucer as a reward. He founded there the city of Salamis, named after his homeland.

• ⁽⁶⁾ Horace, Odes: “Wherever fortune may bear us, kinder than my father, | We shall go, o men and comrades! | Despair in no way with Teucer as your leader and as protector, | Surely resolved Apollo has promised uncertain | Future to Salamis in a new world. | O men, who with me often have endured | Worse fortunes, now, banish cares with wine; | Tomorrow we shall set out upon the boundless sea!”
  (Quo nos cumque feret melior fortuna parente, | ibimus, o socii comitesque. | Nil desperandum Teucro duce et auspice Teucro; | certus enim promisit Apollo ambiguam tellure nova Salamina futuram. | O fortes peioraque passi | mecum saepe viri, nunc vino pellite curas; | cras ingens iterabimus aequor.”)

Leda and the Swan, from the Sanctuary of Aphrodite,
Paphos, Cyprus (3rd century CE)

The “copper island”, a vital node in the trade networks, experienced two waves of Grecian settlement: the initial wave consisted of Mycenaean traders, c. 1400 BCE. Towards the end of this period, great amounts of Mycenaean pottery were produced in Cyprus. A major second wave, connected with Teucer’s story, took place after the Bronze Age collapse, c. 1100 BCE, with the island’s predominantly Hellenic character dating from this era, due to the invasion of Helladic refugees. Apart from Salamis, Teucer is credited as a founder of other cities, too. A local legend in Galicia, in northwestern Iberia, relates the foundation of Pontevedra to “Teucro”. The legend seems to be based on the conjecture that Greek traders might have arrived there in ancient times. Though legends appear for a certain reason, historians and archaeologists tend to agree that the initial settlement was probably formed when Gallaecia was integrated into the Roman Empire (1st century BCE). Pontevedra, i.e. “old bridge”, in reference to an old Roman bridge across the Lérez river, is sometimes poetically called “The City of Teucro”, and its inhabitants teucrinos – just like the Trojans!⁽⁷⁾ (See Chronicle 26, Odysseys in the Aftermath of the Trojan War: Colonization of Iberia).

Oil lamp, Tróia

• ⁽⁷⁾ It seems as if Tróia, across Setúbal, Portugal, was named after Troy but we do not know why. Tróia peninsula has been inhabited since prehistoric times when it was an island called Acalá. In the 1st century CE, the Romans built a town and named it Cetóbriga. It served as a fishery centre until 412, when it was destroyed completely by an earthquake with tsunami. If the town’s initial name had been Tróia, we could think that the Romans, as originating from the Trojans, decided to build a “Troy” in the vicinity of the city of Odysseus – Olisipo, Lisbon! According to José Pedro Machado, Tróia – in the Onomastic-Etymologic Dictionary of the Portuguese Language – is not a toponym found exclusively in the area of Setúbal. There are more Tróias in Portugal and a Troya in Galicia. Their “godfathers” were probably inspired by the Iliad. Based on an article in the Great Portuguese and Brazilian Encyclopedia, Machado expressed the idea this name to originate from Cetóbriga: > Cetóbria > Cetróbia > Cetróia > Xetróia > Atróia – though it seems too much of an adventure for a toponym… Or perhaps the name comes not from Troy but from either Troyes or Truyes, two cities of France; or its origin is the Latin phrase “Trogia (villa)”, from the Celtic name Trogus – which is the most likely explanation.

Mosaic in Conímbriga

Thracian and Celtic Coincidences

● Cetóbriga is apparently a Celtic toponym, too. But because of the reports on the presence of even Thracians in Iberia, who also had the suffix –briga in their tongue, let’s have a look at that possibility, too. This suffix is very common in several toponyms of the peninsula. The most well-known city with such a name is Conímbriga, one of the greatest Roman settlements in Portugal. During pre-Roman times, the Conii (or Cynetes, who settled later in southern Portugal) occupied the settlement. After the town was destroyed by Suebi c. 465-468 CE, several of its inhabitants went to live in the neighbouring Aeminium that was gradually renamed as Coimbra. The word Conímbriga is not related to the Conii; it is formed by the native term conim (rock) and the Celtic suffix –briga (citadel), deriving from the Celtic Brigantes, who had Brigantia, N. England, under their control in pre-Roman times. Ptolemy wrote that the Brigantes also lived in SE Ireland, while Strabo mentioned the Brigantii as a subtribe of the Vindelici on the Alps. There was a Brigantium (Coruña) in Galicia, and a Brigaecium in Asturias. But there were also the Bryges, or Brigantes, a numerous Thracian people, whose cradle was perhaps the land of the Cicones, a Homeric tribe, between the Hebrus (Maritsa) and Nestos rivers, or the area around the Prespes or Brygeides lakes. The Bryges were ancestors of the Phrygians (‘B’ turned into ‘Ph’), who originally lived in the Balkans, and then settled in Asia Minor. The land of the Cicones, according to Herodotus, was initially called Briantica. The Bryges spread to N. Epirus (c. 700 BCE), to Paeonia, to Illyria (as Scymnus of Chios wrote in his Periēgēsis), to the Adriatic (in the area of the Brygeides islands), and later to West Europe, campaigning as followers of Dionysus. According to Hesychius, the suffixes –briga, or –bria, were typical in the names of the Thracian Brigantes’ towns (See Chronicle 26, Odysseys in the Aftermath of the Trojan War: Colonization of Iberia).

Trojan Horse: its oldest known depiction
on the Mykonos vase; ca 670 BCE

UP TO NOW, excluding Teucer, who attacked Cyprus in collaboration with the Phoenicians, representing all those who found refuge there, we have seen no Hellenes fighting alongside the Sea Peoples, or their allies, but rather against them in the Trojan War. It is what Sanford Holst already told us in the previous Chronicle:

“The Mycenaeans attacked the Anatolian people from the seaward side. To deal with this problem, warriors and ships in the Sea Peoples confederacy poured from Anatolia and the Black Sea into the Aegean, where they ravaged the Mycenaeans.”

Let us try to verify this in Wikipedia:

“The invaders, that is, the replacement cultures at those [Mycenaean] sites, apparently made no attempt to retain the cities’ wealth but instead built new settlements of a materially simpler cultural and less complex economic level atop the ruins. For example, no one appropriated the palace and rich stores at Pylos, but all were burned up, and the successors (whoever they were) moved in over the ruins with plain pottery and simple goods. This demonstrates a cultural discontinuity.”

This may demonstrate a logical discontinuity, as well! The question of who the invaders might have been is left open. However, the author identifies them with “the replacement cultures”, who were stupid enough to “burn up the palace and rich stores”, instead of appropriating them. Quite simply, those invaders had no intention to settle there; they went there just to destroy: for sure, they were not “the replacement cultures”!

Captive Sea Peoples in Egypt

The Anatolians were prevalent among the Sea Peoples but they were not alone. Several tribe names in the Egyptian files have a dubious or unknown origin – i.e. the Shekelesh, perhaps the Siculi, who moved to Sicily from the Italian mainland.

“There was a gigantic series of migratory waves”, Michael Grant remarks, “extending all the way from the Danube valley to the plains of China”; and Moses Finley agrees: “A large-scale movement of people is indicated… The original centre of disturbance was in the Carpatho-Danubian region of Europe… pushing in different directions at different times.”

But if we have faith in Michael Wood, they were… “essentially” [?!] Hellenes:

“Were the Sea Peoples in part actually composed of Mycenaean Greeks – rootless migrants, warrior bands and condottieri on the move? Certainly there seem to be suggestive parallels between the war gear and helmets of the Greeks and those of the Sea Peoples”. Moreover, he reminds us that “there were migrations of Greek-speaking peoples to [Sardinia and Sicily] at this time”, and therefore, he includes the Sherden and Shekelesh among the “villains”. Troy, he concludes, “was sacked by essentially Greek Sea Peoples”…⁽⁸⁾

• ⁽⁸⁾ It’s a pity there were “essentially” no Britannic “condottieri on the move”. Or else this… “thinking woman’s crumpet” (as Wood was humorously dubbed by British newspapers for his good looks most appealing to women) would have found Hellenic colonies even on Mars!

Cycladic head: a Pelasgian who is suspect as an “islander”: he has deformed his features!

Michael Wood is not alone, either. The identification of the Denyen and Ekwesh with the Danaans and Achaeans respectively are long-standing issues in Bronze Age scholarship, as the “suspects” also lived “in the isles”…⁽⁹⁾ Were the Egyptian scribes so naïve to use two names for one and the same people? What species of Bronze Age scholars are they if they (pretend to) ignore that Achaeans and Danaans are synonymous terms? Have they not been schooled in the Iliad? Homer mentions the name Achaeans 598 times; Danaans 138 times; Argives 182 times; and Hellenes only once. According to a version of the myth, they were ancestors of the Greeks and their tribes: Hellen, Graecus, Magnes, and Macedon (Makednós) were sons of Deucalion and Pyrrha, the only survivors of the Great Flood. Sons of Hellen were Dorus, Xuthus, and Aeolus; sons of Xuthus were Ion and Achaeus. Danaus, coming from Egypt, Pelops, from Anatolia, and Cadmus, from Phoenicia, gained a foothold in Greece, were assimilated and Hellenized. At least for the Danaans, perhaps due to their “Egyptian” origin, there is some “flexibility”: they are identified with the people of Adana in Cilicia, or possibly related to the land of the Danuna, near Ugarit, in Syria, or it is rumoured they joined Hebrews to form one of the original 12 tribes of Israel, that of Dan.

• ⁽⁹⁾ Although the connection of the Hittite toponym Ahhiyawa, or Ahhiya, with Achaea is strongly disputed (cf. Wikipedia: “the exact relationship of the term Ahhiyawa to the Achaeans beyond a similarity in pronunciation is hotly debated by scholars”; see also the conclusion of this Chronicle), the… “Wikipedists” are absolutely sure about the identification of the Achaeans with the Ekwesh. So, if you search for the entry “Ekwesh”, you are redirected to the “Achaeans”… As for the phrase “in the isles”, used by the Egyptians when referring to Sea Peoples and quoted by scholars as an argument, it ends up meaning: “Whoever is not a landsman is a suspect”!

THE MAJOR EVENT DURING PHARAOH Merneptah’s reign (1213–1203 BCE) was a war against a confederacy, termed the “Nine Bows”, under the leadership of the king of Libya. The pharaoh declared that he defeated the invasion, killing 6,000 soldiers and taking 9,000 prisoners. To be certain of the numbers, among other things, he took the penises of all uncircumcised dead and the hands of all the circumcised.⁽¹⁰⁾ We mention this macabre detail because, as it turned out, the so-called “Achaeans”, the Ekwesh, were circumcised, a fact that would certainly have obliged any serious Bronze Age scholar to “acquit” the Grecian Achaeans!⁽¹¹⁾

• ⁽¹⁰⁾ Imagine those poor soldiers who were assigned to count all these penises and hands…

• ⁽¹¹⁾ …“a fact causing some to doubt they were Greek,” is what we actually read in Wikipedia! They were circumcised as a… camouflage! Or just to baffle our Bronze Age scholars! What they do remember is Virgil’s aphorism: “Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes”; i.e. “Beware of Greeks bearing gifts” – in this case: bearing circumcision! Our scholars have been schooled in the Aeneid, at least… Note that not only the Ekwesh, but also the Shekelesh and Shardana were circumcised, as the Egyptians made clear (pity, they did not inform… Michael Wood)! Thus these two peoples had also been Oriental in origin and settled in Sicily and Sardinia only later. Those who were not circumcised were the Peleset. (“Aha!”, I can hear you chuckling, my dear scholars…)

Merneptah stele: the Zionist usurpers… usurped it from
another usurper!

Merneptah Stele and Exodus

● The pharaoh’s victories over the Libyans and their Sea People allies are glorified on the Merneptah Stele, a black granite slab over three meters high, that Flinders Petrie discovered in Thebes in 1896. There is, however, a kind of footnote in the final two of the 28 lines, which refers to a separate campaign in Canaan. There the king boasts of defeating and destroying four cities, the fourth one being most probably a city and valley in northern Canaan, called Jezreel – a word so similar to… Israel! For sure, that would be far more convenient and beneficial for all: the entire Jewish diaspora, the emerging Zionism, formally established as a movement the next year after the discovery, for many Christians, especially the clergy, and of course, for Petrie himself! That day he wondered: “Won’t the reverends be pleased?” and then he prophesied: “This stele will be better known in the world than anything else I have found.” He was not a fool: if this set of hieroglyphs on Line 27 could be read as… “Israel”, instead of “Jezreel”, it would present the first documented instance of this name in the historical record, and the only mention in ancient Egypt!

Although the readings in many places are illegible due to the rough surface and the poor cutting (Petrie’s own translation of the text contains dozens of question marks; only next to the controversial word the mark is missing…), most biblical archeologists accept Petrie’s version. So, his find was also proclaimed as… “Israel Stele”;⁽¹²⁾ based on a disputed word in the penultimate line of a text dealing with another subject! What a disgrace for Merneptah: a proud pharaoh boasting of a triumph over a handful of poor villagers! There were no more than about 25 villages then on the highlands of Canaan. Archaeologists and historians have attempted to trace the origins of these villagers but it’s been impossible to identify any distinctive features that could define them as specifically Israelite. “It is probably… during Iron Age I” (1200–1000 BCE), says archaeologist Paula McNutt, that “a population began to identify itself as ‘Israelite’.” The Kingdom of Israel emerged as an important, worth-mentioning local power even later, by the 9th century BCE, before falling to the Assyrians in 722. Thus, there was no “Israel” for Merneptah to mention – unless he was as prophetic as Petrie himself!

• ⁽¹²⁾ Merneptah is also to blame: he “appropriated” the stele from his predecessor, Amenhotep III, turned it round and wrote his controversial text on its rough surface. He could never imagine how this text would be distorted. For sure, he was not a prophet like Petrie!

Departure of the Israelites, by David Roberts (1829)

● This “misspelling” trick was some kind of “compensation” for the historical “error” of the Egyptians to mention neither the notorious Exodus nor the calamitous Biblical plagues. The archeologists are equally “guilty”, as they failed to find any evidence to support the “story” of the Jews in Egypt and the Sinai. The consensus among biblical scholars is that there was never any exodus of the proportions described in the Bible. According to the book of Exodus, arguably the most important in the Bible, the Jews leaving the country would have numbered some 2 million – compared with an entire Egyptian population of around 3 to 3.5 million in 1250 BCE! Marching ten abreast and without accounting for livestock, they would have formed a line 240 kilometers long! No evidence has been found that Egypt ever suffered such a demographic and economic catastrophe, or that the Sinai desert ever hosted (or could have hosted) these millions of people and their herds… The date proposed initially of an Exodus around 1450 BCE is also problematic: digs in the 1930s had failed to find traces of the simultaneous destruction of Canaanite cities c. 1400 BCE – and in fact many of them, such as Jericho, the first one to fall to the Israelites according to the Bible, were then uninhabited. A century of research by archaeologists and Egyptologists has found no evidence that can be directly related to the captivity, and the escape and travels through the wilderness, and most archaeologists have abandoned their investigation of Moses and the Exodus as “a fruitless pursuit”. Archaeologist William Dever says that there is “no room for an Exodus from Egypt or a 40-year pilgrimage through the Sinai wilderness.”

Flinders Petrie’s “fine, Caucasian, dynastic race” invading Egypt…!

● Flinders Petrie, who could possibly “address the issue”, died a long time ago and was buried on Mount Zion, in Palestine. Besides, he remains a controversial figure as a committed advocate of “eugenics” and of the “superiority” of the white, Northern peoples over the Latinate and Southern peoples, as well as for his affiliation with a variety of fascist groups and anti-democratic thought in England. His archaeological views were equally racist: he contended that the Egyptian civilization was derived from a “fine”, invading “Caucasian Dynastic Race”, which had conquered Egypt in pre-dynastic times of late prehistory and introduced the pharaonic, dynastic culture to the “inferior” “mulatto” race then inhabiting the country. These views spilled over into disputes with E. A. Wallis Budge. The British Museum‘s Egyptologist declared that the ancient Egyptians were an African people with roots in eastern Africa and their religion was essentially identical to the religions of the peoples of northeastern and central Africa. However, all but some of his colleagues followed Petrie – a most revealing fact about the dominant ideology at the time, at least among intellectuals. Thus Petrie and his followers derided Budge’s ideas as impossible and “unscientific”…

NEXT ROUND in this protracted war against the Sea Peoples, marking the Bronze Age collapse, took place some three decades later, during the reign of Ramses III (1186–1155 BCE), the last great pharaoh of Egypt. His inscriptions state that the “Nine Bows” re-appeared as another “conspiracy in their isles”… Most Sea People tribes were there again; we are also informed that at least two great battles were fought, one on the sea, and the other on land.

The pharaoh proudly presented his captives (from L to R): the Libyan, Nubian, Syrian, Shasu, and Hittite (the… Hellene probably escaped!)

“When it was over”, says the Wikipedia article on the Sea Peoples, “several chiefs were captive: of Hatti, Amor, and Shasu among the ‘land peoples’, and the Tjeker, ‘Sherden of the sea’, ‘Teresh of the sea’ and Peleset or Philistines (in whose name some [?] have seen the ancient Greek name for sea people: Pelasgians)”…⁽¹³⁾

• ⁽¹³⁾ Pelasgian is related to πελός and Πέλοψ (Pelops: dark-skinned), or to πέλας (the fellow man, or the one nearby) and πελάζω-πλάζω (approach), or to περάω and πέρα (cross to the other side, as a migrant tribe). Once more, the scholars are wrong, as there is no connection with the sea, specifically πέλαγος (pelagos < πλήσσω or πλήττω, i.e. hit).

What conclusions can we draw? We are surprised, first of all, since our scholars were not… surprised at all when they read about a Hittite chief among those captive. Hatti had been a Sea Peoples’ arch-enemy – and one of their greatest victims. But scholars are usually aware of such “details” and are not taken by surprise. Besides, the same thing happened before and the pharaoh’s official complaints were forwarded to the Hittite monarch – as long as this empire still existed. OK, but why don’t they bother to explain, instead of wasting their time trying to involve the Greeks in this… “conspiracy theory”?

Ramses III vs the Sea Peoples

Eventually, we realize that the destruction of the established civilizations, mainly the Hittite and Mycenaean, was a deliberate tactic of the Sea Peoples to garner more strength at sea and amass land forces, as well. After all, the empires were of the aristocracies, Hittite or Mycenaean. What else could a desperate Hellene or a destitute Anatolian do, under the circumstances, but follow and stand by the peoples with whom he shared the same aspirations for a better life?

What else could a desperate Hellene or a destitute Anatolian do but follow the peoples with whom he shared the
same aspirations for a better life?

But what a pity for our scholars: not even one Greek among the captive chiefs… He probably escaped! The other captives were chiefs of the Amorites, who lived in Syria and part of Mesopotamia, and possibly of the Hebrews: Shasu is a term for nomad wanderers, and at least one of the tribes worshipped the Jewish god Yahweh. The rest were sea captains.

The pharaoh concluded his report as follows: “I slew the Denyen in their isles” and “burned” the Tjeker and Peleset… Therefore, he implied some maritime raids of his own, or some punitive expeditions elsewhere in the Mediterranean. In the Aegean? Where, what and whose were these “isles”? Whatever the answers, the chain reaction of the raids went on; it was the Egyptians’ turn to destroy – but destruction bears no signature…

Lady of Mycenae (fresco)

Homer mentions an Achaean attack upon the Nile delta, while Menelaus speaks of that in the Odyssey, recounting his voyage back home from the Trojan War. It was not, however, the only such marauding action by Mycenaeans against Egypt where they went “just for the fun of it” – and some gain, of course!

Taking into account the continuous turbulence among or within the sovereign Mycenaean royal families, the hypothesis that they may have utterly destroyed themselves is long-standing, and seems to find support by the reputable Greek historian Thucydides:

“For in early times the Hellenes and the barbarians of the coast and islands… were tempted to turn to piracy, under the conduct of their most powerful men… They would fall upon a town unprotected by walls… and would plunder it… no disgrace being yet attached to such an achievement, but even some glory”…

Hittite chariot

The “Achaeans” through Hittite eyes

VARIOUS HITTITE ACCOUNTS, from c. 1400 to c. 1220 BCE, mention a land in western Anatolia, named Ahhiyawa (or Ahhiya). The term is thought to be a Hittite rendition of the word “Achaea”, with the broader meaning of “the Achaeans’ land”. This idea was strongly disputed by other Hittitologists (see e.g. footnote 9). In addition, a precise geographical location of this land cannot be drawn from the texts. In any case, it seems that “Achaea” and Hatti evidently dealt with each other both on a diplomatic and a military level. We can read a letter that the Hittite king sent to his “Achaean” counterpart, where the latter is recognized as a “Great King”, and of equal status with the other contemporary great Bronze Age rulers: the kings of Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria. Referring to Millawanda (or Milawata: Miletus?) as a city within the “Achaean” domain,⁽¹⁴⁾ the Hittite monarch mentions an earlier “Wilusa episode”, within his own area, where the “Achaeans” lined up with his enemies. We have seen that Wilusa was most probably Troy (cf. the archaic Ϝίλιον, and later Ilion, i.e. the Trojan acropolis). This “episode” is possibly connected with the Trojan War.⁽¹⁵⁾

The Love of Helen and Paris, by
Jacques-Louis David (1788)

• ⁽¹⁴⁾ The Minoans had created in Miletus perhaps their most important settlement on Anatolian soil. The Mycenaeans inherited it, when they replaced the Cretans as the leading power in the Aegean. The city grew and became prosperous, as it is attested not only from the archaeological evidence, but also these Hittite records, which indicate that Miletus was the most important base for “Achaean” activity in Asia Minor ultimately reaching Iassos, Ephesus, and other cities.

• ⁽¹⁵⁾ Unfortunately, we cannot cross-check the available evidence because the Mycenaeans, unlike the Hittites, did not bother to write down such… “details”! The records in Linear B just refer to administrative bureaucratic issues of the palace. Even commerce is curiously absent from the written sources in Linear B! That’s why it’s impossible to reconstitute from texts in Linear B the late Bronze Age’s political developments. (Hittites vs. Mycenaeans: 1–0!)

In the second half of the 13th century, a long anti-Hittite revolt broke out with “Achaean” support, and headed by Piyama-Radu, who married his daughter to the vassal ruler of “Miletus”. His case is of particular interest since it appears to intertwine with that of the Trojan War. It was a remarkable revolt for its duration, having spanned at least 35 years, during which time he posed a considerable threat to three consecutive Hittite kings; it caused a great deal of turmoil in the areas of Wilusa, Arzawa,⁽¹⁶⁾ and Seha, and led to an invasion of Lazpa (Lesbos?), which passed under “Achaean” control. The aforementioned letter was sent in this period, as the Hittite king tried to persuade his “Achaean” counterpart to restore peace. Among other things, he mentions a brother of the “Achaean” monarch, named Tawagalawa, or… Eteocles,⁽¹⁷⁾ according to several imaginative scholars! Much more controversial is the “identification” of Piyama-Radu: it is speculated that he “corresponds to the archetype” of the Trojan king Priam… What’s next? They will probably… rewrite the Iliad!

• ⁽¹⁶⁾ “Achaea” and Arzawa joined forces several times against the Hittites. Arzawa was a kingdom, or a confederacy of local rulers, in western Anatolia, with Apasa, later Ephesus, as a capital.

• ⁽¹⁷⁾ The story of Oedipus’ son and king of Thebes is part of the Theban Cycle that is unrelated to the Trojan (Epic) Cycle and the Atreides. Eteocles’ brother was Polynices, with whom he fought for the throne and both were killed. The tragedy culminated with their sister Antigone’s death.

Places mentioned in this Chronicle (counter-clockwise): Wiluša, Lazpa, Seha, Mira, Apaša, Millawanda, Arzawa, Hapalla, Lukka, Alašiya, Ugarit, Amurra,Tarša, Hatti, Hattuša.

Warfare between “Achaeans” and Hittites began c. 1400 BCE. Hittite records mention the operations of the “Achaean” warlord Attarsiya in southwestern Asia Minor, possibly in Lycia, against Hittite vassals. It is the first recorded “Achaean” military activity on the Anatolian mainland, and is associated with an increase of Mycenaean findings in Miletus in this period (early 14th century BCE), indicating that a number of Greeks moved from mainland Hellas to this region. Attarsiya used the city as a military base, and hostilities continued until circa 1250 BCE. “Achaean” activity was to interfere in Asia Minor, with the support of anti-Hittite uprisings, or through local vassal rulers that the “Achaean” king used as agents for the extension of his influence. Speculation, of course, is also present here: It has been suggested by several scholars that the warlord was none other than Atreus, a mythical king of Mycenae, and father of Agamemnon. Others, noting that the Hittites do not speak of the “high king of Achaea”, argue that he should have been some general, named Atreus, or with a similar name, or finally that Attarsiya means Atreidēs, i.e. he was a member of the royal dynasty.

In order to undermine the Hittites, the warlord intervened in Anatolian affairs attacking Hittite vassals, such as Madduwatta from Arzawa (Luwia),⁽¹⁸⁾ whom he repeatedly defeated, as the army he deployed included 100 war chariots. But he eventually withdrew from Asia Minor to prepare a campaign against Alashiya (Cyprus?). He had the Lukka (“Lycians”) on his side, providing him the necessary naval support, together with a number of his Anatolian allies, even Madduwatta, who decided to switch camps. This worried the Hittites, since they considered the island one of their dependencies. The invaders finally defeated them, and thus Alashiya passed under their control. The Mycenaean presence in Cyprus is also corroborated by archaeological evidence, as we have seen, for Mycenaean finds dating from that time were unearthed there.

Anatolian hieroglyphs

• ⁽¹⁸⁾ The Luwians lived in central, western, or southern Asia Minor, as well as the northwestern part of the Levant, in the Bronze and Iron Ages. They spoke the Luwian language, an Indo-European Anatolian tongue written in cuneiform of Mesopotamian origin, or a unique native hieroglyphic script, which was sometimes also used by the linguistically related Hittites.

The following decades were a period of Mycenaean expansion on the Anatolian coast (c. 1380–1320 BCE). In 1320-1315, there was another anti-Hittite rebellion in Arzawa, in cooperation with “Miletus”, and supported by the “Achaeans”, who appeared to be in control of a number of islands in the Aegean, an impression also supported by archaeological evidence. Finally, the Hittites were victorious. The king of Arzawa managed to escape to “Achaean”-controlled territory, and his land was split into three provinces: a southern province, Mira, would later become known as Caria; a northern province, Seha, would be renamed as Lydia; and an eastern province called Hapalla (the Grecian Pisidia). That was the finale of this kingdom’s history, which had passed into oblivion, and came back on the surface thanks to the Hittite texts.

If, indeed, the information contained in these archives corresponds up to a point to historical facts, it seems that the Mycenaean and Hittite palatial civilizations of the Aegean and Anatolia were “bored” (to death) by the same woodworms…

The Luwian Civilization: The Missing Link in the Aegean Bronze Age

ALBEIT BELATEDLY, I’VE STUDIED Eberhard Zangger’s book,⁽¹⁹⁾ The Luwian Civilization / The Missing Link in the Aegean Bronze Age (2016). I feel it is useful to outline his main points regarding the Sea Peoples:

• ⁽¹⁹⁾ Since 1994 Zangger has been advocating the view that a Luwian civilization existed in Western Asia Minor during the 2nd millennium BCE. In 2014 he established the international non-profit foundation Luwian Studies.

The Luwian Civilization / The Missing Link in the Aegean Bronze Age. Cover: probably an Atlantis-like reconstruction of Troy, the most prominent Luwian city, as Eberhard Zangger imagined it.

“Over twenty years ago, I proposed a chronological reconstruction of the political and economic development in the countries around the Eastern Mediterranean during the 13th century BCE. It causally links three wars comprised of reciprocal attacks. First, the so-called Sea Peoples’ invasions took place, during which the navy of allied Luwian petty states from the eastern shore of the Aegean Sea advanced to the southeast. The Luwians were then attacked a few years later by allied Greek forces – and this is memorialized in the tradition of the so-called Trojan War. And finally, a civil war… broke out in Greece.”

“Perhaps the trigger for the [Luwians’] decision to engage in war was [Hatti’s] conquest of Cyprus… possibly to get access to its copper resources. The Luwians in western Asia Minor played an active role in long-distance trade and may have depended on Cyprus as a port of call. Therefore they entered into a military alliance and built a fleet of fast, agile vessels for invasions. Instead of moving against the Hittite forces over land, they dashed across the sea and reached the important Hittite borderlands of Cyprus and Syria. The acclaimed mercenary armies of the Lukka and Sherden had become marine forces which no longer fought alongside the Hittite king but against him – they had formed the coalition known as the Sea Peoples… [Eventually] the capital Hattuša was wiped out overnight – and with it the Hittite Empire.”

Sphinx Gate at Hattusa

“The petty states from western Asia Minor suddenly controlled an area stretching from Macedonia across Anatolia to Syria and Canaan, where it touched upon the Egyptian dominion… Together with this vast territory, the Luwians now dominated almost all ore deposits in the Eastern Mediterranean, as well as the trade routes on land and at sea… Both the access to the Black Sea region as well as the connection through Cyprus and Syria to Mesopotamia were now under Luwian control. Considering the distribution of mineral resources, arable land, the path of the perennial rivers and of the trade routes, the Mycenaeans were about to face a superior force for an extended period of time. To avoid complete dependence… they engaged in a coalition themselves with the ultimate purpose to raid western Asia Minor… About ten years later, united Greek forces attacked western Asia Minor – and this was later remembered as the ‘Trojan War’… which was thus a counterattack against the previously victorious Sea Peoples.”

“While the Mycenaean kings were fighting at Troy, their wives and less competent deputies had taken their thrones. When the surviving victorious kings returned, many of these deputies did not want to give up their power. A civil war broke out and consumed progressively one citadel after another… Pylos – and later Ithaca – may have been among the last palaces to fall into the hands of the insurgents.” (Eberhard Zangger, The Luwian Civilization / The Missing Link in the Aegean Bronze Age; see Chronicle 26, Odysseys in the Aftermath of the Trojan War: Colonization of Iberia).

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Next Chronicle 21. IBERIAN “EL DORADO” ● Minoans, Mycenaeans, Phoenicians in Iberia ● Fortunate Isles, Hesperides ● Sardinia ● Odysseus, Calypso, Ophiussa ● Tartessos

Mycenaean gold diadem