ARCHiPELAGOS • VIII. EM TEMPO DE INDIGÊNCIA

AMÉLIA MUGE & MICHALES LOUKOVIKAS

ARCHiPELAGOS / Passagens

 

VIII. EM TEMPO DE INDIGÊNCIA

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● Sem deuses ● Nós ● Feitiço
● As ilhas do Egeu ● A ruína da Grécia
● Falamos de sombras (Democracia)
● Um início

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/ENGLISH/ ARCHiPELAGOS • VIII. IN TIMES OF INDIGENCE

/ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΑ/ ΑΡΧΙΠΕΛΑΓΟΣ • VIII. ΣΤΗΝ ΕΠΟΧΗ ΤΗΣ ΕΝΔΕΙΑΣ

ARCHiPELAGOS / Passagens: AMÉLIA MUGE & MICHALES LOUKOVIKAS

Hélia Correia: A Terceira Miséria & Indignação (excertos)

17. Sem deuses

– Hélia Correia / Amélia Muge
• Arranjo: A. Muge, António José Martins, Michales Loukovikas

Para quê, […] para que servem
Os poetas em tempo de indigência?

[…] sem deuses, sem o sentimento
Sequer da sua falta, nós nascemos,
E incapazes de lembrar, secando,
Sugando tudo, até aquilo que não
Nos serve de alimento, o que circula
Nas entranhas da terra, a sua linfa,
Essa que os argonautas ainda viram
Exsudar, como um sangue, dos rochedos
Quando tudo cantava e era ferido.

• Canto e voz ritmada: A. Muge / Coro: Maria Monda, A. Muge •
Contrabaixo: António Quintino / Percussão: José Salgueiro / Violino: Kyriakos Gouventas

Argo, de Konstantinos Volanakis

● Hélia Correia (nascida a 1949 em Lisboa) é uma escritora de romances, contos, sendo também dramaturga e poeta. Reinterpreta mitos helénicos dando destaque a heroínas como Antígona, Helena, e Medeia. Ganhou o Prémio Camões (2015), a distinção mais prestigiada do mundo Lusófono, que dedicou à Grécia, de onde vem a poesia, sem a qual não seríamos nem teríamos nada, como disse na entrega do prémio, concluindo com a exclamação Viva a Grécia! Além disso, é uma dupla pena que ninguém se tivesse interessado em publicar A Terceira Miséria na Grécia. Bem, é a quarta miséria que nos cabe! ● Argonautas: heróis da mitologia helénica que nos anos anteriores à Guerra de Troia (c. 1300 a.C.) acompanharam Jasão de Tessália na viagem a Cólquida, na costa do Mar Negro (actual Abkházia na Geórgia ocidental), em busca do Velo de ouro; o termo argonautas significa, literalmente, os marinheiros do Argo, nome dado ao navio em que viajam, em honra do seu construtor – Argos. Numa das suas aventuras, vão dar ao Monte Díndimo, lugar seco e rochoso, situado na Frígia (Ásia Menor); aí, por engano, acabam por matar os seus aliados e protegidos de Cibele (ou Reia) – deusa daquele lugar, da terra, da fertilidade, da montanha, a mãe de todos os deuses e de todos os seres, a Senhora de muitos nomes…; em sua homenagem e a título de pedido de perdão pelo erro, oferecem-lhe sacrifícios e a deusa, em reconhecimento, faz nascer do rochedo uma fonte de água cristalina (Fonte ou Nascente de Jasão) e à volta dela brotam ervas, flores e muitas outras plantas.

18. Nós

– Hélia Correia / Michales Loukovikas
• Arranjo: M. Loukovikas

Nós, os abandonados, os que não
Sabem sequer como aplacar
E a quem,
Nós, os emudecidos,
Irmanados com os sem-terra, nós,
Os futuramente esfomeados,
Bárbaros com os pés no alcatrão,
Bebedores de petróleo, como pode

De novo a praça,
A Ágora, juntar-nos?

• Canto: Amélia Muge / Coro: Maria Monda, A. Muge • Contrabaixo: António Quintino
Guitarra: Dimitris Mystakidis / Percussão: José Salgueiro / Piano: Filipe Raposo

● Ágora: praça central na antiga pólis helénica; literalmente significa assembleia ou ponto de encontro; começa por ser o centro da vida política, artística, espiritual e atlética da cidade; mais tarde, também funciona como pólo económico: um mercado com tendas ou lojas, atraindo artesãos que, à sua volta, constroem as suas oficinas. Desta dupla função da ágora – espaço político-económico – derivam dois verbos gregos: ἀγορεύω (agoreúō), falar em público, e ἀγοράζω (agorázō), comprar, ir às compras. É também origem da palavra agorafobia (receio mórbido de espaços largos, como ruas e praças, em especial de sítios públicos).

Uma representação imaginária da Ágora ateniense na época de Péricles

19. Feitiço

– Hélia Correia / Amélia Muge
• Arranjo: António José Martins, Filipe Raposo

Esses – que não existem
E nos deixaram assustados, sós,
Sem as ferramentas adequadas,
Sem pensamento,
Sem esses deuses temperamentais
Que tomavam partido nos combates.

Transformados em porcos, por feitiço,
Pela malevolência,
Exactamente
Como na Odisseia,
Não sabemos
– e os Gregos esqueceram –
Como é que tal feitiço
Se desfaz?

Circe Invidiosa, de John William Waterhouse

Experimentos
– Amélia Muge

Orelha de porco
Gato sapato
Olho de rato,
Um ramo torto
Metade do bico da cotovia

Rosmano mocho
Bago romã
Unha de coxo
Perna de rã
Língua da avó mas que seja torta

Pingo de cuspo
Pico do cacto
Escama de peixe
Pêlo de gato
Asas de mosca atadas num feixe

Uma nota preta
Um cheque careca
Moeda furada
Um arroto de banqueiro
O suor de um ano inteiro

• Canto, efeitos vocais, voz falada: A. Muge
• Percussão: José Salgueiro, A.J. Martins
Sintetizadores: F. Raposo

● Odisseia: ver Homero, em ARCHiPELAGOS • VII. ILHAS IMAGINÁRIAS.

●

20. As ilhas do Egeu

– Hélia Correia / Manos Achalinotópoulos, Amélia Muge
– Livre improviso:
Harris Lambrakis, M. Achalinotópoulos, A. Muge, Kyriakos Gouventas
• Arranjo: Michales Loukovikas

[…] Só mais tarde […]
O que desconhecia a mansidão […]
Se apercebeu do uivo que soltavam
As ilhas todas, com as suas praias
E os seus bosques vazios. […]

[…] Sim, foi essa
A primeira miséria, a deserção
Dos deuses. A segunda, a sua morte,
Já na morte de Pã anunciada
Pelo lamento dos bosques, o clamor
Lutuoso das ilhas do Egeu. […]

Para quê, […] para que servem
Os poetas em tempo de indigência?

• Voz falada: H. Correia / Canto: A. Muge / Improviso vocal: M. Achalinotópoulos, A. Muge
• Improviso instrumental: H. Lambrakis, ney; M. Achalinotópoulos, clarino; K. Gouventas, violino
Pedal: K. Gouventas, viola; António Quintino, contrabaixo; Catarina Anacleto, violoncelo

Pã e Syrinx (ou Sírinx e Siringe), de Jean François de Troy.

● Ilhas do Egeu: ver ARCHiPELAGOS • I. REVISITANDO O ARQUIPÉLAGO. ● Pã: nome originário do grego πάειν (páein, pasto), é o deus da natureza selvagem, de pastores e da música pastoral, de rebanhos e montanhas, companheiro das ninfas, ligado à fertilidade e à primavera; é também o deus da crítica teatral; temido pelos que atravessam florestas durante a noite, atribuem os pavores súbitos que os acometem, quando ouvem sons estranhos, de animais, a Pã (pânico); inventa um instrumento musical chamado Siringe, nome de uma ninfa que para fugir dos ataques amorosoa de Pã se transforma num canavial, a partir do qual ele cria a sua flauta, conhecida como siringe ou flauta de Pã; em versão egípcia, é a constelação do Capricórnio; com pernas e chifres de bode, Pã é uma figura significativa no movimento romântico nos séculos XVII a XIX, bem como nos movimentos neopagãos do século XX.

●

21. A ruína da Grécia

– Hélia Correia / Michales Loukovikas
• Arranjo: M. Loukovikas

Nós, os ateus, nós, os monoteístas,
Nós, os que reduzimos a beleza
A pequenas tarefas, nós, os pobres
Adornados, os pobres confortáveis,
Os que a si mesmos se vigarizavam
Olhando para cima, para as torres,
Supondo que as podiam habitar,
Glória das águias que nem águias tem,
Sofremos, sim, de idêntica indigência,
Da ruína da Grécia.

● Ateísmo: ausência e rejeição da crença na existência de divindades – de qualquer divindade; tem por oposição o teísmo, que acredita na existência de pelo menos um deus. A raiz etimológica da palavra ateísmo tem origem (séc. V a.C.) no grego ἄθεος (atheos), que significa sem deus(es). O termo actual aparece no séc. XVI. ● Monoteísmo: crença na existência de um único deus criador do mundo, onipotente, onisciente e onipresente; uma distinção pode ser feita entre o monoteísmo exclusivo e o monoteísmo inclusivo ou panenteísta que, apesar de reconhecer vários deuses distintos, postula alguma unidade subjacente. Distingue-se do henoteísmo em que, apesar de o crente adorar uma só divindade, admite a existência de outras com a mesma validade e adoração igualmente monolátrica.

• Canto: Amélia Muge / Coro: Maria Monda, A. Muge • Clarino: Manos Achalinotópoulos
Contrabaixo: António Quintino / Guitarra: Dimitris Mystakidis / Ney: Harris Lambrakis
Percussão: José Salgueiro / Piano: Filipe Raposo / Violino: Kyriakos Gouventas

22. Falamos de sombras (Democracia)

– Hélia Correia / Ludwig van Beethoven
• Adaptação / Arranjo: Michales Loukovikas

A Terceira Sinfonia (Eroica), Segundo Movimento, primeira parte
Marcia funebre, Adagio assai, Sotto voce (1804)

Sim, falamos de sombras. Vendo bem,
Incendiámos tudo: Alexandria
E os sábios, as mulheres, […]
O grande coração. Temos aos ombros
O apetrecho dos destruidores, […]:
Essa arrogância
Pela qual o ocidente se perdeu.

A terceira miséria é esta, […].
A de quem já não ouve nem pergunta.
[…] não recorda. E, ao contrário
Do orgulhoso Péricles, se torna
Num entre […] os que se entregam,
[…] que vão misturar-se como um líquido
Num líquido maior, perdida a forma,
Desfeita em pó a estátua.

Estão as praças,
Como ágoras de outrora, estonteadas
Pela concentração dos organismos,
Pelo uso da palavra, a fervilhante
Palavra própria da democracia […]

Monumento a Beethoven, de Francesco Jerace (1895)

• Canto: Amélia Muge / Coro: Maria Monda, A. Muge, Rui Vaz, José Manuel David, Pedro Casaes
• Clarinete: Kosmás Papadópoulos / Contrabaixo: António Quintino
Ney: Harris Lambrakis / Percussão: José Salgueiro / Piano: Filipe Raposo
Violino, viola: Kyriakos Gouventas / Violoncelo: Catarina Anacleto

● Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827): compositor e pianista alemão na transição entre o classicismo e o romantismo na música ocidental, e um dos mais famosos e influentes compositores do mundo. ● Sua Terceira Sinfonia (1804) foi inicialmente dedicada a (Napoleão) Buonaparte (título original da obra), por acreditar que incorpora os ideais democráticos e anti-monárquicos da Revolução Francesa; mas quando se auto-proclama imperador, retira-lhe a dedicatória; publicada em 1806, a partitura já se intitula Sinfonia Eroica, composta per festeggiare il sovvenire di un grande Uomo; informado da morte de Napoleão (1821), Beethoven diz: Compus para este acontecimento há 17 anos, referindo-se ao Segundo movimento: Marcia funebre (marcha fúnebre); Adagio assai (muito lento); Sotto voce (em voz baixa, sussurrado).

Hipátia, de Charles William Mitchell (1885)

● Alexandria: fundada por Alexandre o Grande por volta de 331 a.C., torna-se um importante centro da civilização helenística; é famosa pelo Farol (ilha de Faros), uma das Sete maravilhas da Antiguidade, e pela Grande Biblioteca, a maior da sua época, incendiada à vez por romanos, bizantinos e árabes embora não haja certezas quanto a estes últimos; os títulos, conservados sobretudo em rolos de papiro, seriam entre 40.000 e 400.000 na altura do seu apogeu, pelo que os sucessivos incêndios fazem dela símbolo de destruição do conhecimento intelectual e artístico; a Biblioteca fazia parte do Museu, instituição dedicada à investigação, onde estudaram muitos dos mais importantes pensadores da antiguidade como Arquimedes, Aristarco, Ctesíbio, Eratóstenes, Euclides, Heron ou Hiparco; depois da Biblioteca principal ter sido destruída, os estudiosos passam a usar uma biblioteca filha, noutro local da cidade: a biblioteca do templo Serapeu, dedicado a Serápis, protector de Alexandria. ● Em 391 d.C. o Serapeu e o remanescente da Grande Biblioteca são de novo pilhados e queimados, agora por soldados e por fanáticos cristãos, por ordem de um decreto do Imperador Teodósio e de outro do patriarca Teófilo. ● O “Grande Terror” em Alexandria atinge o seu climax em 415, com o brutal assassinato da filósofa, matemática e astrónoma Hipátia, instigado por “Santo” Cirilo, sobrinho e sucessor de Teófilo. Sócrates de Constantinopla, um historiador cristão contemporâneo, atesta, na sua História Eclesiástica, que Cirilo incitou uma multidão de 500 monges possuídos “de um ardor feroz e intolerante [… Eles] atacaram-na de surpresa [Hipátia] quando regressava a casa, arrastando-a da carruagem, levaram-na para uma igreja chamada Caesareum [o quartel-general de Cirilo], onde a despiram e assassinaram com óstraca [cacos de barro, fragmentos de cerâmica]. Depois de terem dilacerado e feito em pedaços o seu corpo, levaram os seus restos mortais para um lugar chamado Cinaron, onde os queimaram.”

Clístenes

● A democracia (δημοκρατία, poder do povo) foi concebida na Grécia clássica como um sistema de governo onde os cidadãos exerciam directamente o poder e não através de representantes. A primeira democracia do mundo foi estabelecida em Atenas em 508 a.C. sob a liderança de Clístenes, como um sistema directo e participativo, no qual era o colectivo de cidadãos (Eclésia) que votava na legislação e contas públicas, enquanto que os que eram escolhidos para o exercício de cargos faziam-no de forma colectiva. Esta selecção era feita por sorteio, não por eleição, para não favorecer os ricos, nobres, famosos, com escolarização , eloquentes ou bem parecidos. De facto, o sorteio era olhado como o meio mais democrático de impedir a compra corrupta de votos e dar aos cidadãos uma forma única de igualdade política. Dessa maneira, eram maior o envolvimento dos cidadãos na política, governando e sendo por sua vez governados, como escreveu Aristóteles. Como excepção à regra havia a eleição (não por sorteio) de dez generais – devido à sua experiência necessária em questões políticas e de guerra – e também daqueles que, provenientes das classes mais altas, lidavam com grandes somas de dinheiro: qualquer desfalque poderia ser recuperado de suas propriedades. O desprezo que os primeiros democratas sentem pelos que pensam apenas em privado nos seus assuntos é evidenciado pela palavra idiota, do grego ἰδιώτης – pessoa que não participa activamente na política. Péricles declara que nós não dizemos que um homem que não se interesse de todo por política é um homem que se mete apenas nos seus próprios assuntos; dizemos é que ele não tem aqui assuntos nenhuns a tratar. ● Péricles (c. 495-429 a.C.): estadista proeminente e influente, orador e general (estratega) entre as guerras persas e peloponense, cujo nome está ligado à Era de Ouro de Atenas; promove as artes e a literatura e estimula a evolução da democracia ateniense; num excerto da sua Oração Fúnebre, registada por Tucídedes (História da Guerra do Peloponeso), diz: A nossa politeia não copia as leis dos Estados vizinhos; somos nós que servimos mais como um modelo para os outros do que somos imitadores. Chama-se democracia, porque não são os poucos mas os muitos que governam. Se consultarmos nossas leis, elas prescrevem uma justiça igual para todos a despeito de suas diferenças individuais.

Oração Fúnebre de Péricles, de Philipp Foltz (1852)

23. Um início

– Hélia Correia / Amélia Muge
• Arranjo: António José Martins, Filipe Raposo

De que armas disporemos, se não destas
Que estão dentro do corpo: o pensamento,
A ideia de polis, resgatada
De um grande abuso, uma noção de casa
E de hospitalidade e de barulho
Atrás do qual vem o poema, atrás
Do qual virá a colecção dos feitos
E defeitos humanos, um início.

• Canto: A. Muge / Coro: Maria Monda • Contrabaixo: António Quintino / Ney: Harris Lambrakis
Percussão: José Salgueiro / Piano: F. Raposo / Violino, viola: Kyriakos Gouventas
Violoncelo: Catarina Anacleto

● Pólis, quer dizer, literalmente, cidade em grego, mas referindo-se mais ao conjunto dos cidadãos do que à área geográfica que ocupa; também pode significar cidadania. O termo helénico que se refere especificamente à totalidade dos espaços e edifícios urbanos é ἄστυ (ásty). Antes da Batalha de Salamina p.ex., os persas conseguiram ocupar a ásty de Atenas, mas não a pólis, porque os cidadãos embarcaram nos barcos da frota ateniense e partiram. Na historiografia moderna, usa-se o termo pólis para indicar uma cidade-estado grega, embora o termo seja inadequado. As poleis gregas não eram como as cidades-estado fenícias que eram governadas por um rei ou uma pequena oligarquia, sendo os seus habitantes meros súbditos. Assim, o termo pólis acabou por significar estado; derivado de pólis, politeia (πολιτεία) em helénico significa cidade, mas indicando também todos os procedimentos relativos à pólis o que, por extensão, poderia significar tanto cidade-estado como república, administração, governo, governação, comunidade, colectividade; já politeuma significa regime; para não mencionar a etimologia de política…

A Biblioteca de Alexandria durante o seu apogeu

• >> ARCHiPELAGOS • IX. JÁ SE DÃO AS VOLTAS TODAS
• << ARCHiPELAGOS • VII. ILHAS IMAGINÁRIAS

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ARCHiPELAGOS • VIII. IN TIMES OF INDIGENCE

AMÉLIA MUGE & MICHALES LOUKOVIKAS

ARCHiPELAGOS / Passages

 

VIII. IN TIMES OF INDIGENCE

.

● Without Gods ● We ● Spell
● The Aegean Islands ● The Ruin of Hellas
● We Talk About Shadows (Democracy)
● A Beginning

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/PORTUGUÊS/ ARCHiPELAGOS • VIII. EM TEMPO DE INDIGÊNCIA

/ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΑ/ ΑΡΧΙΠΕΛΑΓΟΣ • VIII. ΣΤΗΝ ΕΠΟΧΗ ΤΗΣ ΕΝΔΕΙΑΣ

ARCHiPELAGOS / Passages: AMÉLIA MUGE & MICHALES LOUKOVIKAS

Hélia Correia: The Third Misery & Indignation (excerpts)

• Adapted into English by Michales Loukovikas

17. Without Gods

– Hélia Correia / Amélia Muge
• Arranged by A. Muge, António José Martins, Michales Loukovikas

What’s the use, […] what is the purpose
Of a poet in times of such indigence?

[…] without gods, without even
Feeling their absence, we are born,
And unable to remember, draining,
Sucking everything, even that which do not
Serve us as aliment, whatever circulates
In the bowels of the earth, its own lymph,
The one that the Argonauts even saw
Exuding, like blood, from rocks and stones
When everything sang, got injured and wounded.

• Voice: A. Muge / Vocals: Maria Monda, A. Muge • D. Bass: António Quintino
Percussion: José Salgueiro / Violin: Kyriakos Gouventas

Argo, by Konstantinos Volanakis

● Hélia Correia (born 1949): a Portuguese novelist, playwright, and poet. She reinterpreted Hellenic myths from the point of view of female heroines, such as Antigone, Helen, and Medea. The sequence In Times of Indigence is mainly based on her acclaimed poem A Terceira Miséria (2012), a tribute to Greece, following in Friedrich Hölderlin’s footsteps. She was awarded the Camões Prize, the most prestigious literary distinction in the Lusophone world, which she dedicated to Hellas, where poetry comes from, without which we would be nothing and have nothing, as she said, concluding her speech with the exclamation Long live Greece! Therefore it’s a double pity that no one is interested in publishing The Third Misery in Greece. Well, this is a fourth misery on our part! ● Argonauts: heroes in Hellenic mythology who, in the years before the Trojan War, around 1300 BCE, accompanied Jason to Colchis, on the Black Sea coast, in present-day Abkhazia and western Georgia, in his quest to find the Golden Fleece. The term comes from their ship, Argo, named after its builder, Argus. Thus Argonauts literally means Argo sailors. ● While sailing by eastern Phrygia, they encountered stormy weather and, advised by a prophet, they climbed Mount Dindymon, sacred to the mountain mother, Cybele, whom the Hellenes identified with Rhea. There they offered sacrifices to the Dindymene mother and, commanded by Orpheus, they danced in full armour and clashed with their swords on their shields… Hence from that time forward the Phrygians propitiate Rhea with the rhombus and the drum. And the goddess responded: the trees shed fruit, the earth put forth flowers, and wild animals came up wagging their tails. And she caused yet another marvel; for hitherto there was no flow of water on Dindymon, but then an unceasing stream gushed forth from the peak, and the dwellers around called that stream Spring of Jason. And then they made a feast in honour of the goddess on the Mount of Bears, singing the praises of Rhea most venerable; at dawn the winds had ceased and they rowed away from the island. (Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica)

18. We

– Hélia Correia / Michales Loukovikas
• Arranged by M. Loukovikas

We, the abandoned ones, those who do not
Even perceive in what way to placate
And whom,
We, the dumbfounded,
Fraternized with all the landless, we,
The destined for a bleak starvation,
Barbarians with our feet in the black tar,
Heavy drinkers of petroleum, how can it be that

Once more the square,
The Agora, unites us?

• Voice: Amélia Muge / Vocals: Maria Monda, A. Muge • D. Bass: António Quintino
Guitar: Dimitris Mystakidis / Percussion: José Salgueiro / Piano: Filipe Raposo

● Agora: a central spot in ancient Hellenic poleis. Literally it means gathering place, assembly. The agora was the centre of political, artistic, spiritual and athletic life of the city. Later, it also served as an economic centre, as a marketplace, where merchants kept stalls or shops to sell their goods. This attracted artisans who built workshops nearby. From this twin function of the agora as a political and commercial space came the two Greek verbs ἀγορεύω, agoreúō, I speak in public and ἀγοράζω, agorázō, I shop, I buy.

An imaginary depiction of the Agora of ancient Athens at the time of Pericles

19. Spell

– Hélia Correia / Amélia Muge
• Arranged by António José Martins, Filipe Raposo

All those – not in existence
Those who have left us terrified, alone,
With no proper tools and devices,
Without thinking,
Without these temperamental gods
Who liked to take sides during the battles.

Being transformed into pigs, by a spell,
Due to malevolence,
Oh, yes, exactly
Just like in the Odyssey,
We do not know
– and the Greeks cannot remember –
What can we do so as to
Break the spell?

Circe Invidiosa, by John William Waterhouse

Experiments
– Amélia Muge

The ear of a pig
Plus a cat’s paw
The eye of a mouse
A crooked branch
Half of the beak of a skylark

Rosemary dried
A pomegranate
A lame’s nail
The leg of a frog
Grandma’s tongue,
preferably twisted

A drop of spit
A cactus peak
And a fish scale
A pussy’s fur
Wings of a fly bound in a bundle

An arm and a leg
A rubber check
A coin with a hole
The belch of a banker
An entire year’s sweat

• Voice, vocal effects, recitation: A. Muge
• Percussion: José Salgueiro, A.J. Martins
Synthesizers: F. Raposo

● Odyssey: see Homer in ARCHiPELAGOS • VII. IMAGINARY ISLANDS.

●

20. The Aegean Islands

– Hélia Correia / Manos Achalinotópoulos, Amélia Muge
– A free improvisation
by Harris Lambrakis, M. Achalinotópoulos, A. Muge, Kyriakos Gouventas
• Arranged by Michales Loukovikas

[…] Only later […]
He who did not know how to be docile […]
Became conscious of the howl that was emitted
From all the islands, with their shorelines
And their deserted forests. […]

[…] Yes, that was
The initial misery, the desertion of
The gods. The second one, their death,
That on Pan’s death was announced
With the lament of the forests, the mournful
Clamour of the Aegean Islands. […]

What’s the use, […] what is the purpose
Of a poet in times of such indigence?

• Recitation: H. Correia / Voice: A. Muge / Vocal impros: M. Achalinotópoulos, A. Muge
• Instrumental impros: H. Lambrakis, ney; M. Achalinotópoulos, clarino; K. Gouventas, violin
Drones: K. Gouventas, viola; António Quintino, d. bass; Catarina Anacleto, cello

Pan and Syrinx, by Jean François de Troy.

● Aegean Islands: see ARCHiPELAGOS • I. THE ARCHIPELAGO REVISITED. ● Pan: the god of the wild, shepherds and flocks, mountains, and pastoral music, connected to fertility and spring. He had the hindquarters, legs, and horns of a goat, just like a satyr. The Greeks also considered him to be the god of theatrical criticism. His name originates from the Greek verb πάειν, páein (to pasture); the word panic is derived from his name, due to the sudden fear the people felt in the mountains hearing strange animal sounds. Syrinx, a nymph known for her chastity, was also panicked when she was chased after by Pan. In order to escape, she was transformed into hollow water reeds that made a haunting sound when the god’s frustrated breath blew across them. He cut the reeds to fashion the first set of pan pipes, which are also known as syrinx. Pan became a significant figure in the Romantic movement in the 18th and 19th centuries, and also in the Neopagan movement of the 20th-century.

●

21. The Ruin of Hellas

– Hélia Correia / Michales Loukovikas
• Arranged by M. Loukovikas

We, the atheists, we, the monotheists,
We, anyone reducing sheer beauty
Down to petty chores, we, the poor but
Well-adorned, the poor but feeling cozy,
Who are always willing to delude ourselves
Amazed while gazing upwards, at the towers,
Supposing that inside we could reside,
Glory of eagles with no eagles there,
We suffer, yes, from the one and same indigence,
From the ruin of Hellas.

● Atheism: the absence of belief in the existence of deities, the rejection of belief that any deities exist. It is contrasted with theism, which is the belief that at least one deity exists. The etymological root for the word originated before the 5th century BCE from the Greek ἄθεος (atheos), meaning without god(s). The actual term atheism emerged in the 16th century. ● Monotheism: the belief in the existence of only one god that created the world, where he interferes and is all-powerful. A distinction may be made between exclusive monotheism, and both inclusive or panentheistic monotheism which, while recognizing various distinct gods, postulate some underlying unity. Monotheism is distinguished from henotheism, a religious system in which the believer worships one god without denying that others may worship different gods with equal validity, and monolatrism, the recognition of the existence of many gods but with the consistent worship of only one deity.

• Voice: Amélia Muge / Vocals: Maria Monda, A. Muge • Clarino: Manos Achalinotópoulos
D. Bass: António Quintino / Guitar: Dimitris Mystakidis / Ney: Harris Lambrakis
Percussion: José Salgueiro / Piano: Filipe Raposo / Violin: Kyriakos Gouventas

22. We Talk About Shadows (Democracy)

– Hélia Correia / Ludwig van Beethoven
• Adapted/Arranged by Michales Loukovikas

The Third Symphony (Eroica), Second Movement, first part
Marcia funebre, Adagio assai, Sotto voce (1804)

Yes, we talk about shadows. Thinking twice,
We did burn every thing: Alexandria,
The sages and the women, […]
The noble heart. We have on our shoulders
The apparatus of the destroyers, […]:
That kind of arrogance
Out of which the Occident has been lost.

The third misery is this one, […].
That of those who just don’t listen nor ask questions.
[…] don’t remember. And, contrary
To the exalted Pericles, they turn to
Be one with […] those who surrender,
Those who shall mix themselves like a liquid
Within a liquid mass, the form is lost,
The statue is turned into dust.

All the squares
Seem like agoras of yore, astounded
By the concentration of organisms,
By the use of the word, the passionate
And fervent word of democracy […]

Monument to Beethoven, by Francesco Jerace (1895)

• Voice: Amélia Muge / Vocals: Maria Monda, A. Muge, Rui Vaz, José Manuel David, Pedro Casaes
• Cello: Catarina Anacleto / Clarinet: Kosmás Papadópoulos / D. Bass: António Quintino
Ney: Harris Lambrakis / Percussion: José Salgueiro / Piano: Filipe Raposo
Violin, Viola: Kyriakos Gouventas

● Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 – 1827): a German composer and pianist, a crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music. He remains one of the most famous and influential of all composers. ● His Third Symphony, a large-scale composition completed in early 1804, is one of his most celebrated works. Initially he dedicated it to (Napoleon) Buonaparte (its original title), who he believed embodied the democratic and anti-monarchical ideals of the French Revolution. He tore off the dedication when he learned that Napoleon had declared himself Emperor. The score was published in 1806 under the Italian title Sinfonia Eroica, composta per festeggiare il sovvenire di un grande Uomo (Heroic Symphony, composed to celebrate the memory of a great Man). When informed of Napoleon’s death (1821), Beethoven said, I wrote the music for this sad event 17 years ago, referring to the second movement, Marcia funebre, funeral march; Adagio assai, very slow; Sotto voce, low voice: intentionally lowering the volume of one’s voice for emphasis, giving the impression of uttering a truth which may surprise, shock, or offend. In music, it is a dramatic lowering of the volume, vocal or instrumental – not necessarily pianissimo, but definitely a hushed tonal quality.

Hypatia, by Charles William Mitchell (1885)

● Alexandria: founded circa 331 BCE by Alexander the Great, it became an important centre of the Hellenistic civilization. It was famous for its Lighthouse (Pharos), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and its Great Library, the largest in antiquity, which was burned repeatedly by Romans, Byzantines, and Arabs. Its demise has become a symbol of knowledge and culture destroyed. It was part of a larger research institution, the Musaeum, where many of the most famous thinkers of the ancient world studied: Archimedes, Aristarchus, Ctesibius, Eratosthenes, Euclid, Hero, Hipparchus… Most of the books were kept as papyrus scrolls. Estimates range from 40,000 to 400,000 scrolls at its height. After the main library was destroyed, scholars used a daughter library in a temple, the Serapeum, located in another part of the city. ● In 391 CE the Serapeum and the remnants of the Great Library were looted and burned by army troops and Christian fanatics, at the decrees of the Emperor Theodosius and Pope Theophilus. In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon described Theophilus as the perpetual enemy of peace and virtue, a bold, bad man, whose hands were alternately polluted with gold and with blood. ● The Great Terror in Alexandria climaxed in 415 with the brutal murder of the philosopher, mathematician and astronomer Hypatia, instigated by Cyril, Theophilus’ nephew and successor, counted among the Church Fathers and Doctors of the Church, and canonized as a Saint! In his Historia Ecclesiastica, Socrates of Constantinople, a contemporary Christian historiographer, testified that Cyril agitated a mob of 500 fanatic monks possessed “by a fierce and bigoted zeal [… They] waylaid [Hypatia] returning home and, dragging her from her carriage, they took her to the church called Caesareum [Cyril’s headquarters], where they completely stripped her, and then murdered her with ostraka [potsherds]. After tearing her body in pieces, they took her mangled limbs to a place called Cinaron, and there burnt them.”

Cleisthenes

● Democracy (δημοκρατία, rule of the people) was conceived in classical Greece as a system of government where the citizens exercised power directly, not through representatives. The first democracy in the world was established in Athens in 508 BCE under Cleisthenes as a direct, participatory system, in which the citizens voted themselves on legislation and executive bills, while those selected for office served collectively. The selection was done mostly by lot, not election, because the latter favours the rich, noble, famous, educated, eloquent, and handsome. Allotment was regarded as the most democratic means to prevent the corrupt purchase of votes and give citizens a unique form of political equality. In this way more and more citizens were engaged in politics, ruling and being ruled in turn, as Aristotle wrote. Elected rather than chosen by lot (therefore coming from the higher classes) were the ten generals, due to their necessary expertise in matters of politics and war, and also those who handled large sums of money: any embezzlement could be recovered from their estates. The contempt the first democrats felt for those who did not participate in politics is obvious in the word idiot, from the Greek ἰδιώτης, i.e. a private person, someone who is not actively participating in politics. We do not say that a man who takes no interest in politics is a man who minds his own business, Pericles declared; we say that he has no business here at all. ● Pericles (c. 495 – 429 BCE): a prominent, influential statesman, orator and general, between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars, whose name is connected with the Golden Age of Athens.

Pericles’ Funeral Oration, by Philipp Foltz (1852)

23. A Beginning

– Hélia Correia / Amélia Muge
• Arranged by António José Martins, Filipe Raposo

What are the arms at our disposal, if not these
We find inside the body: our own thinking,
The idea of polis, but redeemed
From a great abuse, the very notion of home and
Of hospitality, too, and of commotion
From which we see the rise of the poem, from which
We’ll see the rise of the collection of our deeds
And misdeeds as humans, a beginning.

• Voice: A. Muge / Vocals: Maria Monda • Cello: Catarina Anacleto / D. Bass: António Quintino
Ney: Harris Lambrakis / Percussion: José Salgueiro / Piano: F. Raposo / Violin, Viola: Kyriakos Gouventas

● Polis literally means city in Greek, but referring mainly to the body of its citizens rather than its area; it can also mean citizenship. The Hellenic term that specifically means the totality of urban buildings and spaces is ἄστυ (ásty). Before the Battle of Salamis e.g., the Persians managed to occupy the ásty of Athens, but not the polis, as the citizens boarded the ships of the Athenian fleet and left. In modern historiography, polis is used to indicate a Greek city-state, though this term is inadequate. The Greek poleis were not like the Phoenician city-states, which were ruled by a king or a small oligarchy, with their inhabitants being mere subjects. Thus the term polis came to signify state: politeia in Hellenic means city, but also state, republic, polity, government, governance, etc. while politeuma means regime. Not to mention politics…

●

The Library of Alexandria during its heyday, its acme

• >> ARCHiPELAGOS • IX. NOSTALGIA AND NOSTOS
• << ARCHiPELAGOS • VII. IMAGINARY ISLANDS

Chronicle 17. MINOAN CRETAN THALASSOCRACY

Chronicle 17. MINOAN CRETAN THALASSOCRACY

/ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΑ/ Χρονικό 17. ΚΡΗΤΟΜΙΝΩΙΚΗ ΘΑΛΑΣΣΟΚΡΑΤΟΡΙΑ

● Minoan Society and Art ● Linear A-B, Phaestos Disc
● Tin Bronze ● Bull-Leaping (Taurocathapsia)

Michales Loukovikas
Swallows and lilies, fresco on Thera-Santorini (ca 1650 BCE, detail)

The palace of Minos at Knossos

THE MINOAN CIVILIZATION, the crème de la crème of the Aegean cultures in the Bronze Age, arose on the island of Crete, flourished from the 30th to the 15th centuries BCE, and then vanished. It came to light again at the outset of the 20th century CE, thanks to the British archaeologist Arthur Evans. The term Minoan refers to the legendary Minos. We presume, on no evidence, that it was not a name but a royal title. In the Odyssey, composed centuries after the demise of the Minoans, Homer calls the natives of the island Eteocretans (“true Cretans”); most probably, they were true descendants of the Minoans. In addition, there were several settlements in the Aegean and the Ionian Seas, as well as in Sicily and Canaan, known by the name Minoa. The root min– appears in some Aegean languages, toponyms, and in the name of an autochthonous people inhabiting the Aegean, the Minyans.

The Ship Procession or the Flotilla frieze at Acroteri, Thera (detail)

We assume (again, on no evidence) that the Cretans were not Indo-Europeans, but a Mediterranean people, possibly related to the Pelasgians and the Minyans – the pre-Hellenic dwellers of the Aegean. Crete remained free from invasions for many centuries, and managed to develop an independent and very distinct civilization, one of the most advanced in the Mediterranean during the Bronze Age, together with that of Egypt. Linear A, the Minoan script, has not yet been deciphered – though it is similar to Linear B, the Mycenaean Hellenic script. It possibly represents an Aegean language, unrelated to Indo-European tongues. (On the Aegean, Crete, Minoans, Mycenaeans, sea voyages, etc. see Chronicle 3; on the Pelasgians, Minyans, Greeks see Chronicle 15, footnote 7, and Chronicle 20, The historicity of the Iliad).

Grace in the Aegean: the art of the Minoans (Eugene Hirschfeld)

Bronze Apollo with Lyre, Pompeii

“Crete was well placed in relation to sea trading routes”, observes Eugene Hirschfeld, writing on Grace in the Aegean: the art of the Minoans. “Thucydides wrote that Minos was the first to build a navy:

“‘The first person known to us by tradition as having established a navy is Minos. He made himself master of what is now called the Hellenic sea, and ruled over the Cyclades, into most of which he sent the first colonies… and thus did his best to put down piracy in those waters, a necessary step to secure the revenues for his own use’.”⁽¹⁾

• ⁽¹⁾ Piracy is most ancient; in all likelihood, it appeared together with navigation. The Tyrrhenians, Illyrians and Thracians were known as pirates in ancient times. The Aegean island of Lemnos, a haven for Thracian pirates, long resisted Hellenic influence. By the 1st century BCE, there were pirate states along the Anatolian coast, threatening the commerce of the Roman Empire.

“With their merchant fleet,” says Hirschfeld, “the Minoans came to dominate the seas, sailing for hundreds of miles in search of trade from Spain in the west to Syria in the east…⁽²⁾ It is possibly a measure of both the Minoans’ geographical isolation and the strength of their fleet that their coastal towns seem to have had few fortifications. Thus their period of ascendancy was called by Arthur Evans the Pax Minoica or ‘Minoan peace’ – a time when cities needed no walls.⁽³⁾ Like Pax Romana, of course, such a peace, if it existed, would have been the product of military strength rather than pacifism.”

Replica of the Uluburun shipwreck

• ⁽²⁾ “We should never under-estimate how ‘joined up’ the ancient world was”, Hirschfeld footnotes. “See for example the late Bronze Age shipwreck [at Uluburun], which was carrying a remarkable assortment of international goods from northern Europe, Africa and Mesopotamia”.

● The ship carried one of the most spectacular late Bronze Age assemblages to have emerged from the Mediterranean Sea dated to the late 14th century BCE. It was similar to Graeco-Roman vessels of a later time and was found in 1982 by a sponge diver in south-western Asia Minor.

• ⁽³⁾ Although Evans’ vision of a Pax Minoica has been criticized recently, it seems there was little armed conflict in the island itself until the following Mycenaean period. Archaeologists say the Minoans often show weapons in their art, but only in ritual contexts. Claims that they produced no weapons are erroneous; Minoan swords were the finest in all of the Aegean. Furthermore, no evidence exists for a Minoan army, or domination of peoples, outside Crete.

The Pleiades, by the Symbolist Elihu Vedder (1885)

● The Minoan Cretans used celestial navigation. Besides, they surely had knowledge of astronomy: the palaces and mountaintop sanctuaries have architectural features that align with the rising sun on the equinoxes, as well as the rising and setting of particular stars. The Cretans voyaged to Thera, Egypt, Iberia… Such trips, even that one to Santorini, would have taken more than a day’s sail; thus the sailors would have been left travelling by night across open water. Then the sailors would use the locations of particular stars, especially those of the constellation Ursa Major, for their orientation. Written records of such navigation using the stars go back to Homer’s Odyssey, where Calypso tells Odysseus to keep the Bear (Ursa Major) on his left, and at the same time observe the position of the Pleiades, the late-setting Boötes and the Orion, as he sailed eastward from her Ogygia isle traversing the Ocean. Celestial navigation was as important as shipbuilding: the development of nautical know-how and technology was necessary for the expansion of the Mediterranean civilizations.

● This knowledge characterized all major navigating cultures. Before the Minoans and Mycenaeans, well before the Phoenicians, who were last in line, such a seafaring people covering long distances with their ships had been the Carians. According to Thucydides, it was largely the Carians who settled the Cyclades (and other Aegean islands) prior to the Cretans. The Minoan expansion during the Middle Bronze Age into this region seems to have come at their expense: they were pushed eastwards towards this area in Asia Minor called later Caria, and many turned to piracy as a way of life. Then Minos established his navy to control the Aegean and put down piracy. Ironically, the Carians did not find peace not even on the Asia Minor coast. Hellenic colonies in Doris and Ionia pushed them further into the hinterland, and those who started as seafarers ended up as land people (see the map).

One after the other, all the unique features of this marvelous civilization seem to arise from only one: the Minoans’ thalassocracy, their “geographical isolation and the strength of their fleet”, as Eugene Hirschfeld points out and explains in detail immediately afterwards:

“As a maritime trading civilization, it is unsurprising that the Minoans left us some beautiful fresco images of their ships, wooden sailing vessels superior to any others on the Mediterranean. Perhaps because of this fleet and the protecting seas, military images are unusual in Minoan art. Until the attacks by the Mycenaeans in 1450 BC, there is no real evidence that the Minoans fought wars with any other culture. This is in stark contrast to their contemporaries: the city states of Mesopotamia were constantly at war, celebrating their exploits on such works as the Stele of the Vultures, and Egypt covered tomb walls with images of military pomp. The Minoans preferred leisurely scenes or sports. They loved to decorate walls with murals of dolphins, flowers and fish. Their art has a grace, movement and exuberance distinct from the art of Egypt and Sumer, and… their craftsmanship is second to none.”

The Dolphins mural at Knossos

A cultural paradox: a great power without militarism; a palace that was
not a royal residence, neither the king was glorified; a religion with no
grandeur; while women were equal to men and free – or so it seems…

Knossos Palace (reconstruction)

This civilization is really an astonishing paradox: a great power without a military aristocracy; a palace that was not a royal residence, and neither the anax (king) was glorified; a religion with no grandeur; while women were equal to men and free – or so it seems. Besides, free expression was a basic feature of Minoan art.

“The Minoans were skilled and sensitive architects, and the palaces count amongst their greatest works of art. The most famous is the palace at Knossos, often called the ‘Palace of Minos’. A multi-storey complex of corridors, rooms and staircases built around a central courtyard, the palace boasted impressive plumbing as well as lovely frescos, columns and gardens. Visitors found its ‘agglutinative’ architecture of over 1000 rooms so confusing that it is thought to have inspired the myth of the Minotaur’s Labyrinth. Knossos was an entire community, a centre for religion, pottery production and storage of trade goods, and a venue for festivals. For this reason the term ‘palace’ is not adequate for describing these Minoan complexes.”⁽⁴⁾

Sacred symbols: bull and labrys

• ⁽⁴⁾ The Palace of Knossos is five times the size of Buckingham Palace, with 3-4 floors, a sewerage system, a type of hot water heater, flush toilets and lots of red coloured columns. Millennia later, the Versailles had no toilets at all except for the royal couple! That’s why not only the palace but its gardens, as well, stank awfully…

● On Minoan architecture, true fresco, or how they spread in the Near East with itinerant Cretan craftsmen and artists, see Chronicle 27. An Archaeologist’s Waterloo.

“Sitting at the apex of a trading empire, the Cretan kings were extremely wealthy. It is therefore interesting that they appear to have ordered no sculpture, memorials, king-lists or other works to boast of their power and status… We find nothing like the mighty monuments to the god-kings of Egypt. We have no record either of a king Minos or of any other named monarch, male or female… Historian R. F. Willetts has suggested that the apparent modesty of the Minoan aristocracy can be explained by a difference in religious emphasis: the Minoans did not seek to associate the king with the immortal gods, like the Egyptians or Mesopotamians, but worshiped a particular vision of nature. From this standpoint, images glorifying the king were unnecessary.”

Minoan Snake Goddess

“Women seem to have enjoyed higher status in Minoan culture than was usual in the Bronze Age and… served as administrators and priestesses… Women’s relative equality may be because of the absence of military threat, giving far less impetus to the development of a male warrior discourse and thus a greater role and respect for women. It is tempting when looking at images of young women somersaulting over bulls with the men to conclude that women enjoyed considerable freedom… As for religion, Minoan art provides us with faience figurines of a ‘snake goddess’, and frescos… on which women priests outnumber men. No images of male deities have been found from the peak of Minoan civilization. The apparent prominence of women in Minoan religion has led to conjecture that the principal deity or deities of Minoan Crete may have been female, e.g. an earth or mother goddess.”

What conclusions can we draw?

“The absence of battles, kings, boastful inscriptions and historical
events in Minoan art is surprising for the time.” (Eugene Hirschfeld)

A Minoan beauty on Thera

“Minoan art does show a greater emphasis on spontaneity and invention, and is more secular and informal… less constrained by rigid conventions and geometry”, Eugene Hirschfeld remarks. “The absence of battles, kings, boastful inscriptions and historical events in its art is surprising for the time. We need to recognize such distinctions [but] without falling into the crude formulations sometimes used in the past, such as posing cultured Minoans against barbarous Mycenaeans.

“Arnold Hauser’s first explanation for the particular character of the Minoans’ art is the relatively modest role of religion in their society. Minoan shrines seem to have been small, even in the palaces, kept in people’s homes or built in out of the way places like hills and caves. There is nothing like the great cult of the dead seen in Egypt, or the grandiose works that went with it. There was therefore less impetus towards sternly imposed conventions. He also admires the urbanity of the cultural life that arose around the palaces:

“‘The freedom of Cretan art can be partly explained by the extraordinarily important role which city life and commerce played in the island’s economy… Probably city life was nowhere so highly developed as in Crete’.

“The ‘palace’ was the centre of Minoan life: of trade and agriculture, but also of art. It was perhaps this union of trade and culture in a context of long internal stability that gave Minoan art its urbane liveliness. Crete’s geopolitical situation may also have exerted an influence. With the natural protection of the sea and backed by their fleet, the Minoans had little need to fear invasion. In the absence of a warrior class, not only were women’s rights better than in most Bronze Age cultures, but art was less constrained by the military and religion.”

“It was perhaps this union of trade and culture in a context of long internal stability that gave Minoan art its urbane liveliness.” (Eugene Hirschfeld)

The mysterious Phaestos Disc (side B)

“It is very likely that writing arose in Minoan culture for the same reason it did in Sumer: to keep accounts”, adds Hirschfeld. “An early pictographic script… was replaced in around 1700 BC by one which represented sounds, i.e. a true alphabet, known as Linear A… It has still not been deciphered… If there is imaginative literature among these writings, we cannot read it. We have no Minoan poetry, no songs, no history, no scripture. It is a great culture, but a silent one… One of archaeology’s more mysterious objects is the Phaistos Disc… A fired clay disc, covered on both sides with spirals of stamped symbols… They belong to none of the writing systems mentioned above.”⁽⁵⁾

• ⁽⁵⁾ The Phaestos disc is unique because all these symbols seem to have been impressed into the clay using 45 stamps, reproducing a body of text with reusable characters. The German linguist and typographer Herbert Brekle maintains that the disc is an early document of movable type printing, because it meets the essential criteria of typography, while the American geographer, historian and anthropologist Jared Diamond described it as “by far the earliest printed document in the world”. Discovered by the Italian archaeologist Luigi Pernier in the palace of Phaestos in 1908, the disc (15 cm wide) captured the imagination of amateurs and professionals, and many attempts have been made to decipher it – but in vain…

“We have no Minoan poetry, no songs, no history, no scripture. If
there is imaginative literature among these writings, we cannot
read it. It is a great culture, but a silent one.” (Eugene Hirschfeld)

Theran antelopes

Minoan Trade and Influence

MINOAN CULTURE’S INFLUENCE outside Crete manifests itself in the presence of Minoan handicrafts on the mainland of Greece. After around 1700 BCE, the material culture of the Hellenes achieved a new, higher, level due to Minoan influence. The connections between Crete and Egypt were prominent. Minoan wares were found there, while several Egyptian items were imported, especially papyrus, as well as artistic ideas. The Egyptian hieroglyphs served as a model for the Minoan pictographic writing, from which the Linear A writing system developed.

Later (late 15th – early 14th century BCE), the Minoan palaces were occupied by the Mycenaeans, who adapted the Minoan Linear A script to the needs of their own language, a form of Greek, which was written in Linear B. The Mycenaeans generally tended to adapt rather than destroy Cretan culture, religion, and art, and they continued to operate the Minoan economic system and bureaucracy. After about a century of partial recovery, most Cretan palaces and cities went into decline in the 13th century BCE. When the Bronze Age came crashing down some time later, Crete did not feel the agony of death…

A Theran fisherman

The Minoans were traders, and their cultural contacts reached far beyond Crete – to copper-bearing Cyprus and Asia Minor (or Anatolia), Egypt and Canaan (the Levant), the Balkans and the Black Sea area, mainly Colchis (Georgia–Abkhazia), Mesopotamia, even faraway Afghanistan. Paintings in Thebes, Egypt, from the 15th century BCE, depict a number of Minoans bearing gifts. Inscriptions record these people as coming from the “islands in the midst of the sea”, and may refer to gift-bringing merchants or officials from Crete. Minoan techniques and styles in ceramics also provided models for Helladic Greece. Along with Thera, Cretan ‘colonies’ can be found on Cythera, an island close to the mainland that came under Minoan influence in the 3rd millennium and remained Minoan in culture for a thousand years, until the Mycenaean occupation in the 13th century, as well as on Melos, Cea, Aegina, Rhodes, Miletus, and elsewhere. The Cyclades and the Dodecanese were in the Cretan cultural orbit.

Certain locations in Crete emphasize it as an “outward looking” society. The palace of Kato Zakros e.g. is located within a bay, 100 metres from the modern shore-line. Its large number of workshops and the richness of its site materials indicate a centre for import and export. Such activities are elaborated in artistic representations of the sea with ships and sailors, e.g. the Flotilla fresco on Thera. Homer recorded a tradition that Crete had 90 cities. Multi-room constructions were found also in “poor” areas, revealing a social equality and even distribution of wealth derived through trade. There was a high degree of organization, with no trace of the military aristocracies that characterized the following cultures. While the Mycenaeans relied mainly on conquest to expand, the Minoan Cretans were a mercantile people engaged primarily in overseas trade. No doubt they should have been involved in the Bronze Age’s most crucial trade of tin: tin, alloyed with copper, obviously from Cyprus, was used in the manufacture of bronze. The Minoan decline seems to be correlated with the decline in the use of bronze tools in favour of iron ones.

Multi-room constructions were discovered even in the ‘poor’ areas, revealing
a social equality and even distribution of wealth derived through trade. There was a high degree of organization, with no trace of military aristocracies…

The entire Ship Procession or Flotilla frieze at Acroteri, Thera

Bronze and Orichalcum or Chalcopyrite (Brass)

A Thracian bronze deer, 9th-6th century BCE

● In the beginning, bronze was made from naturally or artificially mixed ores of copper and arsenic. That is why it was called arsenic bronze. Tin was used only later, becoming the sole type of major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium. Tin bronze was superior in that the alloying process could be easily controlled and the alloy was stronger and easier to cast. Moreover, unlike arsenic, tin is not toxic. The earliest tin-alloy bronzes date to the late 4th millennium in Iran, Mesopotamia and China. Copper and tin ores are rarely found together (exceptions include one ancient site in Iran); thus, serious bronze work has always involved trade. The major source for tin in Europe was England’s deposits of ore in Cornwall, traded as far as the eastern Mediterranean. Though bronze is generally harder than wrought iron, the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age because iron was easier to find and to process into a poor grade of metal. Bronze was still used in the Iron Age. Roman officers e.g. had bronze swords while foot soldiers had iron. Archaeologists suspect that a serious disruption of the tin trade precipitated the transition. Mass population migrations c. 1200-1100 BCE reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean (and from Britain), limiting supplies and raising prices. As cultures advanced from wrought to machine forged iron, they learned how to make steel, which is stronger than bronze and holds a sharper edge longer. There are many bronze alloys but modern bronze is typically 88% copper and 12% tin. Historical bronzes are highly variable in composition, as most metalworkers used whatever scrap was on hand.

Andean birdman, tumbaga

● Orichalcum is mentioned in several ancient writings, most notably in the story of Atlantis as recounted in Plato’s Critias dialogue. It is first mentioned by Hesiod in the 7th century BCE, and in a Homeric hymn dedicated to Aphrodite. Plato says that the metal was considered second only to gold in value. But by his time, it was known only by name. Pliny the Elder points out that it has lost currency due to the mines being exhausted. The name derives from the Hellenic word ὀρείχαλκος (from ὄρος, “mountain” and χαλκός, “copper”). Plato’s orichalcum has been held to be either a gold-copper alloy, or a metal no longer known, or mythic like Atlantis. The Romans transliterated “orichalcum” as “aurichalcum”, meaning “gold copper”. The Andean alloy tumbaga is something similar, being a gold-copper alloy. In Virgil’s Aeneid, a gold-silver alloy is mentioned. In later years, orichalcum was used to describe the sulfide mineral chalcopyrite or brass, that is, a copper-iron or copper-zinc alloy. The colour of brass is generally golden-yellow, while that of bronze is brown-red.⁽⁶⁾

• ⁽⁶⁾ Once I had the naïve impression – based on a mechanistic perception of the succession of historical ages (where what comes next is “deterministically superior” to what has preceded it) – that the Iron Age was superior in every aspect to the Bronze Age. Generally this is true. But there are some anomalies, some logical paradoxes, especially in the beginning of the new age, since you have to accept that the “iron” Dorians were more civilized than the “bronze” Achaeans.

Brass French horn

● A similar sham, by the way, is the idea of the “superiority” of monotheism versus polytheism, while in fact it is a colossal setback – and the Christian obscurantism of the Dark Ages proves it. When everyone claims the exclusivity or monopoly on truth, when polytheistic tolerance is lost, then the result is… Jerusalem as the capital not of Israel but of hatred among monotheists!

● Iron weapons, made out of necessity, were “poor weapons”, but also the “weapons of the poor”. Thus the aristocratic monopoly on the conduct of war ceased. One could perhaps argue that “war was democratized”. Even so, is the right to kill a “democratic” right?(!)

Where did the Minoans find tin, the necessary component to produce
bronze? No doubt, Minoan ships should have transported British tin…

Theseus with Ariadne and the Minotaur,
mosaic at Paphos: a Cretan theme in Cyprus.

The Cassiterides

CYPRUS WAS THE MEDITARRANEAN “copper island”; the word copper comes from the name of the island: from the Latin phrase Cyprium (aes), “Cyprian (metal)”. A possible etymological origin of the name Cyprus is the Sumerian words for copper or bronze (zubar / kubar), due to the massive deposits of copper ore found in the island. But where did the Minoans find tin – the necessary component – to produce bronze? Tin was very rare in the eastern Mediterranean. The only known source of cassiterite in the area was Kestel-Göltepe on the Taurus Mountains of south-central Anatolia. It supplied tin from the late 4th millennium to the mid-19th century BCE, when the ores became uneconomical or ran out. There were three other sources of tin available to the Minoan traders: the distant northeastern Afghanistan, central Europe (Bohemia), and the Occident, with vast amounts of tin in places such as Iberia, Brittany, in northwestern France, and especially Cornwall, in southwestern Britain. For the seafaring Cretans, the West was the destination they probably preferred best.⁽⁷⁾ When the Taurus mines shut down, western tin became more important and the Minoans would have completely monopolized the supply of tin into the Eastern Mediterranean with their navy and shipping. Objects made by Minoans suggest there was an extensive network with mainland Greece, Anatolia, Cyprus, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and westwards as far as Iberia, and also even further, that is, Bohemia, Brittany and, of course, Cornwall. Trade in nearby lands was direct, while in distant lands it could also be indirect through middlemen. Undoubtedly, Minoan ships should have transported British tin. If they also dropped anchor at British harbours it’s another story.

• ⁽⁷⁾ Not that the Minoans disregarded tin coming from the Orient: a tablet from the Mari archives mentions a Cretan who purchased tin at Ugarit from agents of the Mari palace in Mesopotamia. This tin came in part from Afghanistan, where Minoan items have been found. Others, however, insist that the said tablet refers, on the contrary, to the purchase of Cretan tin by Mari (500 kg, in 1670 BCE). Mesopotamia, they say, imported mainly Cretan tin and Cypriot copper to make bronze. Central European tin was carried through the Amber Route leading from the Baltic to the Adriatic Sea.

The blue monkeys fresco on Thera

The Cretans derived their surplus from trade, unlike Babylonia and Egypt that principally relied on agriculture. They were the unrivalled long-distance traders, masters of the sea routes, having developed the most advanced navy that had ever been seen. They traded not only their own manufactured goods, “Made in Crete”, such as ceramics and metalwork, but acted as intermediaries, as well, trading raw materials and finished products throughout the Mediterranean and beyond. Their most valuable re-exports were pottery, copper, tin, gold, or silver. They were on the move not only in the Orient but also in the Occident, founding emporia all around. Their most privileged trade contacts in the East were surely those with the Egyptians, while their most significant Western partners should have been the Iberians, as the peninsula was rich in metals, especially silver, but also tin. Trade in tin was very lucrative in the Bronze Age, because, as we have seen, it is an essential component of true bronze, and comparatively rare: only gold and silver are rarer. Apart from the cassiterite deposits in Iberia, the locals obviously knew the route to the Cassiterides…⁽⁸⁾

• ⁽⁸⁾ The Cassiterides, that is, the Tin Islands (from the Greek word for tin: cassíteros), were thought to be situated somewhere near the west coasts of Europe. Ancient writers (Strabo, Poseidonius, Diodorus Siculus, etc.) described them as islets off northwest Iberia. Dionysios Periegetes (i.e. the Voyager) mentioned them in connection with the mythical Hesperides. Stesichorus and Strabo wrote that the Hesperides were by legendary Tartessos (where we shall voyage in due time). But if information of those ancient writers is ignored, it is traditionally assumed that these isles refer to the British Isles as a whole, because of the significant tin deposits in Cornwall; these deposits have become very limited due to their over-exploitation for millennia. (About the Cassiterides see especially Chronicle 26, Early Political Groups).

The metals were just the opening move of a far broader economical and cultural exchange. A lot of Iberians e.g. are nowadays intrigued by the fact that so long ago the Minoans were practicing their own version of “bullfight”. In his bilingual (in Portuguese and English) book, Fado – Lyrical Origins and Poetic Motivation, Mascarenhas Barreto refers to the Neolithic hunting rituals as a possible origin of the bull-leaping “pegas” during Portuguese bullfights, or even other similar daring games with bulls, and wonders

Cretan gold ring: four women with long robes
and bare breasts in a “cult scene” (ca 1500 BCE)

“whether the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula learnt this from the Cretans of the 3rd millennium BC, or if they themselves may have been the teachers, since the bulls were taken from their natural habitat in the peninsula to the island of Crete” (see, as well, Chronicle 5. Iberia’s Odyssey, Creto-Iberian ties).

Nevertheless, when one speaks of such extensive exchanges taking place in the 3rd millennium BCE, with customs adopted and bulls transported so far away, is it really so important to know who imitated whom?

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Ταυροκαθάψια (bull-leaping) depicted on a Knossos fresco (15th century BCE)